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English · हिन्दी · తెలుగు · தமிழ் · മലയാളം · मराठी · ಕನ್ನಡ

Quick recap: The Vedic age on one page

தமிழில் விளக்கம்

The Vedic age · Quick recap · Fact-checked on · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

Both parts condensed for quick revision: the Vedas and the Rig Veda, Sapta Sindhu, tribes, assemblies, economy and gods of the Early Vedic period, and the Later Vedic texts, spread east, Painted Grey Ware, kingship, varna, ashramas and Upanishadic ideas, with one table and eight mixed questions.

Each idea is explained first in Tamil (தமிழ்), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Tamil and revise it in English.

வேத காலம் சுமார் கி.மு. 1500–600; வேதங்கள் வாய்மொழியாக வந்த ஸ்ருதி. முற்காலத்துக்கு ஆதாரம் ரிக் வேதம் — 10 மண்டலங்கள், 1,028 சூக்தங்கள்; 2–7 பழையவை, 9 சோமனுக்கு, காயத்ரி 3இல், புருஷ-நாசதீய சூக்தங்கள் 10இல். வீட்டுப் பழைய ஆல்பத்தில் நடுப்பக்கங்கள் பழையவை, முதல்-கடைசிப் பக்கங்கள் பின்னர் ஒட்டியவை என நினையுங்கள். போகஸ்கோய் (துருக்கி) ஒப்பந்தத்தில் இந்திரன், மித்திரன், வருணன் பெயர்கள். (→ English: Rig Veda · shruti · हिन्दी: ऋग्वेद · श्रुति)

In exam EnglishThe Vedic age, roughly 1500 to 600 BCE, takes its name from the Vedas, texts handed down by memory as shruti and recognised by UNESCO for their chanting tradition in 2003. For the Early Vedic centuries, roughly 1500 to 1000 BCE, almost everything we know comes from the Rig Veda. It has ten mandalas and 1,028 hymns: books 2 to 7, the family books, are the oldest, book 9 is given to Soma, the Gayatri mantra is in book 3, and the Purusha and Nasadiya Suktas sit in the late book 10. Its language is Indo-European and close to the Avesta, and the Boghazkoi treaty of about 1380 BCE in Turkey invokes Indra, Mitra, Varuna and the Nasatyas. 'Arya' in the hymns is a label of language and culture.

முற்கால வேத மக்கள் சப்த சிந்து பகுதியில் — பருஷ்ணி = ராவி, விபாசா = பியாஸ், சுதுத்ரி = சட்லெஜ்; சரஸ்வதிக்கு அதிகப் புகழ். குலங்களாக (ஜனம்) வாழ்ந்தனர்; பருஷ்ணிக் கரையில் பத்து அரசர் போரில் சுதாஸ் வென்றான். ராஜன் மாடுகளைக் காப்பவன்; பலி விருப்பக் காணிக்கை. சபை, சமிதி, விதத்தம் — பெண்களும் பங்கேற்றனர். மாடுகளே செல்வம் — 'எத்தனை மாடு?' என்று சொத்தைக் கேட்பது போல. இந்திரனுக்கு அதிகச் சூக்தங்கள், வருணன் ரிதம் காப்பவன், வழிபாடு வேள்வி மூலம். (→ English: Sapta Sindhu · sabha · samiti · rita · yajna · हिन्दी: सप्त सिंधु · सभा · समिति · ऋत · यज्ञ)

In exam EnglishEarly Vedic people lived in the Sapta Sindhu, the land of the Indus and its Punjab tributaries: the Parushni is the Ravi, the Vipas the Beas and the Shutudri the Sutlej. The Sarasvati is praised most and the Ganga named once. They lived in tribes, each a jana such as the Bharatas and Purus, and in the Battle of Ten Kings, fought by the Parushni, the Bharata chief Sudas, guided by his priest Vasishtha, defeated a coalition of rivals. The rajan protected the tribe and its cattle with the purohita, senani and gramani, and took bali as a voluntary gift. The sabha, samiti and vidatha, the oldest, met with women present. Wealth was cattle; barley was grown; horses drew spoked-wheel chariots; ayas probably meant copper or bronze. Indra had the most hymns, Agni came next, Varuna guarded rita, and worship was by yajna, without temples or images.

பிற்கால வேத காலத்தில் சாம, யஜுர், அதர்வ வேதங்கள், பிராமணங்கள், ஆரண்யகங்கள், உபநிடதம் நூல்கள் வந்தன. வாழ்க்கை கிழக்கே — தோஆப், கோசலம், காசி, விதேகம். வர்ணம் தீட்டிய சாம்பல் நிற மட்பாண்டம், இரும்பு கிடைத்தன. குலம் நிலத்தில் நிலைத்து ஜனபதம் ஆனது — வாடகை வீட்டிலிருந்து சொந்த வீட்டுக்கு மாறியது போல. அரசர்கள் ராஜசூயம், அசுவமேதம், வாஜபேயம் செய்தனர்; விதத்தம் மறைந்தது, சபை-சமிதி வலுவிழந்தன, பலி கட்டாயமானது. (→ English: Upanishad · Painted Grey Ware · janapada · हिन्दी: उपनिषद · चित्रित धूसर मृद्भांड · जनपद)

In exam EnglishIn the Later Vedic period, about 1000 to 600 BCE, the Sama Veda (melodies), the Yajur Veda (ritual formulas, in Shukla and Krishna branches) and the Atharva Veda (charms and spells) were compiled, with the Brahmanas on ritual, the Aranyakas and the Upanishad texts on philosophy, and later the six Vedangas. Life moved east into the Ganga-Yamuna doab, the land of the Kurus and Panchalas, and on to Kosala, Kashi and Videha; a legend in the Shatapatha Brahmana, in which the fire god Agni leads the chief Videgha Mathava eastward until the Sadanira river, preserves the memory of this move. Painted Grey Ware at Hastinapur, Atranjikhera and Ahichchhatra, with iron objects, matches this area. The jana became a janapada, kings performed the rajasuya, ashvamedha and vajapeya with ratnins around them, the vidatha vanished, the sabha and samiti weakened, and bali became a regular payment.

பிற்காலத்தில் ஏர் உழவு, நெல்-கோதுமை; நிஷ்கம், சதமானம் தங்க அளவுகள், இன்னும் நாணயம் இல்லை. சமூகம் இறுகியது: வர்ணம் பிறப்பால், ஒரே கோத்திரத்துக்குள் திருமணம் கூடாது, மூன்று கடன்கள். மூன்று ஆசிரமம் நிலைகள் — பிரம்மச்சரியம், கிருகஸ்தம், வானப்பிரஸ்தம்; சன்னியாசம் பின்னர். பேருந்தில் இருக்கைகள் முன்பதிவு செய்தது போல — யார் எங்கே அமர வேண்டும் என்று முன்பே முடிவு. பெண்களுக்குச் சபையில் இடம் போனது, ஆனாலும் கார்கி, மைத்ரேயி. உபநிடதங்கள்: ஆத்மன் = பிரம்மன், ஞானத்தால் மோட்சம். (→ English: varna · gotra · ashrama · moksha · हिन्दी: वर्ण · गोत्र · आश्रम · मोक्ष)

In exam EnglishThe Later Vedic economy rested on plough farming, with rice (vrihi) and wheat added to barley, more crafts, and gold measured by the nishka and shatamana, though there were still no coins. Society hardened: the four varna groups were fixed by birth, the twice-born took the upanayana while Shudras were excluded, marriage within one's own gotra was forbidden, and every man owed three debts, to the gods, the seers and the ancestors. Three of the four ashrama stages, brahmacharya, grihastha and vanaprastha, were known, sannyasa coming later. Women lost their seat in the sabha, yet the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad still shows two women, Gargi and Maitreyi, taking part in philosophical debate. Prajapati, Vishnu and Rudra rose; sacrifice grew elaborate; and the Upanishads taught that atman is brahman and that knowledge, not ritual, brings moksha.
At a glance: Early and Later Vedic
ThemeEarly VedicLater Vedic
Datesc. 1500–1000 BCEc. 1000–600 BCE
TextsRig VedaSama, Yajur, Atharva; Brahmanas; Upanishads
RegionSapta SindhuDoab, Kosala, Kashi, Videha
EconomyCattle, barleyPlough farming, rice; iron; PGW
PolityRajan with sabha, samiti, vidathaKings, big sacrifices, ratnins; assemblies weaken
SocietyLoose varna; women in assembliesVarna by birth; gotra; three ashramas
GodsIndra, Agni, VarunaPrajapati, Vishnu, Rudra; Upanishadic ideas

Exam traps

Recap

Practice questions

Q1. In which mandala of the Rig Veda is the Gayatri mantra found?

  1. Mandala 1
  2. Mandala 3
  3. Mandala 9
  4. Mandala 10
Show answer

Answer: B. Mandala 3

Answer (b). Book 3, linked with the seer Vishvamitra, contains this prayer to the sun god Savitri. Mandala 1 (a) is a later collection, mandala 9 (c) is given wholly to Soma, and mandala 10 (d) holds the Purusha and Nasadiya Suktas.

Q2. The Rig Vedic river Shutudri is the modern

  1. Ravi
  2. Beas
  3. Sutlej
  4. Chenab
Show answer

Answer: C. Sutlej

Answer (c). Shutudri is the Sutlej. The Ravi (a) is the Parushni, the Beas (b) the Vipas and the Chenab (d) the Asikni.

Q3. Consider the following statements:
1. Bali in the Early Vedic period was a voluntary offering.
2. The vidatha became the most powerful assembly in the Later Vedic period.
3. Women attended Early Vedic assemblies.
Which of the statements given above are correct?

  1. 1 and 2 only
  2. 1 and 3 only
  3. 2 and 3 only
  4. 1, 2 and 3
Show answer

Answer: B. 1 and 3 only

Answer (b). Statements 1 and 3 are correct. Statement 2 is wrong because the vidatha disappears in the Later Vedic period rather than growing stronger. Options (a), (c) and (d) all include statement 2.

Q4. Which one of the following sites is NOT associated with Painted Grey Ware?

  1. Hastinapur
  2. Atranjikhera
  3. Ahichchhatra
  4. Mohenjo-daro
Show answer

Answer: D. Mohenjo-daro

Answer (d). Mohenjo-daro belongs to the Harappan civilisation and flourished long before Painted Grey Ware pottery was made. Hastinapur (a), Atranjikhera (b) and Ahichchhatra (c) are all Painted Grey Ware sites of the upper Ganga plain.

Q5. Match the text with its main content:
A. Sama Veda 1. Charms and spells
B. Yajur Veda 2. Melodies for chanting
C. Atharva Veda 3. Ritual formulas
Select the correct code:

  1. A-2, B-3, C-1
  2. A-3, B-2, C-1
  3. A-1, B-3, C-2
  4. A-2, B-1, C-3
Show answer

Answer: A. A-2, B-3, C-1

Answer (a). The Sama Veda gives melodies, the Yajur Veda ritual formulas and the Atharva Veda charms. Option (b) swaps the Sama and Yajur Vedas, (c) gives charms to the Sama Veda, and (d) swaps the Yajur and Atharva Vedas.

Q6. The Shatapatha Brahmana story of Videgha Mathava is usually read as a memory of

  1. the Battle of Ten Kings
  2. the eastward spread of Vedic settlement
  3. the decline of the Harappan cities
  4. the first use of coins
Show answer

Answer: B. the eastward spread of Vedic settlement

Answer (b). In the tale, Agni leads the chief eastward to the Sadanira, and the land beyond becomes Videha, which recalls the clearing of new land to the east. The Battle of Ten Kings (a) is a Rig Vedic event in the Punjab; the story is not about the Harappan decline (c); and coins (d) appear only after the Vedic age.

Q7. Consider the following statements about Later Vedic society:
1. Shudras were excluded from the upanayana.
2. Marriage within the same gotra was forbidden.
3. Sannyasa was the first of the three ashramas.
Which of the statements given above are correct?

  1. 1 and 2 only
  2. 1 and 3 only
  3. 2 and 3 only
  4. 1, 2 and 3
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 and 2 only

Answer (a). Statements 1 and 2 are correct. Statement 3 is wrong: brahmacharya was the first stage, and sannyasa was added as a fourth only later. Options (b), (c) and (d) include statement 3.

Q8. Which one of the following gods rose to the top of the pantheon in the Later Vedic period?

  1. Indra
  2. Agni
  3. Prajapati
  4. Varuna
Show answer

Answer: C. Prajapati

Answer (c). Prajapati, the creator, became the leading god. Indra (a) and Agni (b) were the chief gods of the Rig Veda and lost some standing later, and Varuna (d), guardian of rita, was a major Early Vedic god.

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