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Quick recap: The Vedic age on one page
Both parts condensed for quick revision: the Vedas and the Rig Veda, Sapta Sindhu, tribes, assemblies, economy and gods of the Early Vedic period, and the Later Vedic texts, spread east, Painted Grey Ware, kingship, varna, ashramas and Upanishadic ideas, with one table and eight mixed questions.
The Vedic age, roughly 1500 to 600 BCE, takes its name from the Vedas, texts handed down by memory as shruti and recognised by UNESCO for their chanting tradition in 2003. For the Early Vedic centuries, roughly 1500 to 1000 BCE, almost everything we know comes from the Rig Veda. It has ten mandalas and 1,028 hymns: books 2 to 7, the family books, are the oldest, book 9 is given to Soma, the Gayatri mantra is in book 3, and the Purusha and Nasadiya Suktas sit in the late book 10. Its language is Indo-European and close to the Avesta, and the Boghazkoi treaty of about 1380 BCE in Turkey invokes Indra, Mitra, Varuna and the Nasatyas. 'Arya' in the hymns is a label of language and culture.
Early Vedic people lived in the Sapta Sindhu, the land of the Indus and its Punjab tributaries: the Parushni is the Ravi, the Vipas the Beas and the Shutudri the Sutlej. The Sarasvati is praised most and the Ganga named once. They lived in tribes, each a jana such as the Bharatas and Purus, and in the Battle of Ten Kings, fought by the Parushni, the Bharata chief Sudas, guided by his priest Vasishtha, defeated a coalition of rivals. The rajan protected the tribe and its cattle with the purohita, senani and gramani, and took bali as a voluntary gift. The sabha, samiti and vidatha, the oldest, met with women present. Wealth was cattle; barley was grown; horses drew spoked-wheel chariots; ayas probably meant copper or bronze. Indra had the most hymns, Agni came next, Varuna guarded rita, and worship was by yajna, without temples or images.
In the Later Vedic period, about 1000 to 600 BCE, the Sama Veda (melodies), the Yajur Veda (ritual formulas, in Shukla and Krishna branches) and the Atharva Veda (charms and spells) were compiled, with the Brahmanas on ritual, the Aranyakas and the Upanishad texts on philosophy, and later the six Vedangas. Life moved east into the Ganga-Yamuna doab, the land of the Kurus and Panchalas, and on to Kosala, Kashi and Videha; a legend in the Shatapatha Brahmana, in which the fire god Agni leads the chief Videgha Mathava eastward until the Sadanira river, preserves the memory of this move. Painted Grey Ware at Hastinapur, Atranjikhera and Ahichchhatra, with iron objects, matches this area. The jana became a janapada, kings performed the rajasuya, ashvamedha and vajapeya with ratnins around them, the vidatha vanished, the sabha and samiti weakened, and bali became a regular payment.
The Later Vedic economy rested on plough farming, with rice (vrihi) and wheat added to barley, more crafts, and gold measured by the nishka and shatamana, though there were still no coins. Society hardened: the four varna groups were fixed by birth, the twice-born took the upanayana while Shudras were excluded, marriage within one's own gotra was forbidden, and every man owed three debts, to the gods, the seers and the ancestors. Three of the four ashrama stages, brahmacharya, grihastha and vanaprastha, were known, sannyasa coming later. Women lost their seat in the sabha, yet the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad still shows two women, Gargi and Maitreyi, taking part in philosophical debate. Prajapati, Vishnu and Rudra rose; sacrifice grew elaborate; and the Upanishads taught that atman is brahman and that knowledge, not ritual, brings moksha.
| Theme | Early Vedic | Later Vedic |
|---|---|---|
| Dates | c. 1500–1000 BCE | c. 1000–600 BCE |
| Texts | Rig Veda | Sama, Yajur, Atharva; Brahmanas; Upanishads |
| Region | Sapta Sindhu | Doab, Kosala, Kashi, Videha |
| Economy | Cattle, barley | Plough farming, rice; iron; PGW |
| Polity | Rajan with sabha, samiti, vidatha | Kings, big sacrifices, ratnins; assemblies weaken |
| Society | Loose varna; women in assemblies | Varna by birth; gotra; three ashramas |
| Gods | Indra, Agni, Varuna | Prajapati, Vishnu, Rudra; Upanishadic ideas |
Exam traps
- The Rig Veda's 1,028 hymns sit in 10 mandalas, of which books 2–7 (the family books) are the earliest; Gayatri in mandala 3; Purusha and Nasadiya Suktas in mandala 10; mandala 9 for Soma.
- Parushni = Ravi (Battle of Ten Kings, won by Sudas with Vasishtha), Vipas = Beas, Shutudri = Sutlej; Sarasvati most praised, Ganga named once.
- Ayas in the Rig Veda is probably copper or bronze; iron ('shyama ayas') and Painted Grey Ware belong to the Later Vedic period.
- Vidatha is the oldest assembly and the one that vanishes later; the sabha and samiti survive but weaken, and women leave the sabha.
- Only the Rig Veda is Early Vedic; Satyameva Jayate is from the Mundaka Upanishad and 'tat tvam asi' from the Chandogya Upanishad.
- Rajasuya = consecration, ashvamedha = roaming horse, vajapeya = chariot race.
- Three ashramas in Later Vedic texts; sannyasa came later. Marriage within the same gotra was forbidden.
- Gargi is a Later Vedic thinker in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, not a Rig Vedic hymn composer like Ghosha, Apala or Lopamudra.
Recap
- Vedic age c. 1500–600 BCE; Vedas are shruti, preserved orally; Vedic chanting recognised by UNESCO in 2003.
- Early Vedic: Rig Veda; Sapta Sindhu; tribes (jana); Battle of Ten Kings on the Parushni; rajan, sabha, samiti, vidatha.
- Early economy and religion: cattle, barley, horse chariots; Indra, Agni, Varuna and rita; yajna without temples.
- Later Vedic texts: Sama, Yajur, Atharva; Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads; six Vedangas.
- Later Vedic spread: doab, Kuru-Panchala, Kosala, Kashi, Videha; Painted Grey Ware and iron.
- Later polity: janapada, rajasuya, ashvamedha, vajapeya, ratnins; assemblies weaken; bali regular.
- Later society: varna by birth, gotra exogamy, three debts, three ashramas; women's role narrows.
- Later religion: Prajapati, Vishnu, Rudra; four priests; Upanishads on atman, brahman, karma, moksha.
Practice questions
Q1. In which mandala of the Rig Veda is the Gayatri mantra found?
- Mandala 1
- Mandala 3
- Mandala 9
- Mandala 10
Show answer
Answer: B. Mandala 3
Answer (b). Book 3, linked with the seer Vishvamitra, contains this prayer to the sun god Savitri. Mandala 1 (a) is a later collection, mandala 9 (c) is given wholly to Soma, and mandala 10 (d) holds the Purusha and Nasadiya Suktas.
Q2. The Rig Vedic river Shutudri is the modern
- Ravi
- Beas
- Sutlej
- Chenab
Show answer
Answer: C. Sutlej
Answer (c). Shutudri is the Sutlej. The Ravi (a) is the Parushni, the Beas (b) the Vipas and the Chenab (d) the Asikni.
Q3. Consider the following statements:
1. Bali in the Early Vedic period was a voluntary offering.
2. The vidatha became the most powerful assembly in the Later Vedic period.
3. Women attended Early Vedic assemblies.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
- 1 and 2 only
- 1 and 3 only
- 2 and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
Show answer
Answer: B. 1 and 3 only
Answer (b). Statements 1 and 3 are correct. Statement 2 is wrong because the vidatha disappears in the Later Vedic period rather than growing stronger. Options (a), (c) and (d) all include statement 2.
Q4. Which one of the following sites is NOT associated with Painted Grey Ware?
- Hastinapur
- Atranjikhera
- Ahichchhatra
- Mohenjo-daro
Show answer
Answer: D. Mohenjo-daro
Answer (d). Mohenjo-daro belongs to the Harappan civilisation and flourished long before Painted Grey Ware pottery was made. Hastinapur (a), Atranjikhera (b) and Ahichchhatra (c) are all Painted Grey Ware sites of the upper Ganga plain.
Q5. Match the text with its main content:
A. Sama Veda 1. Charms and spells
B. Yajur Veda 2. Melodies for chanting
C. Atharva Veda 3. Ritual formulas
Select the correct code:
- A-2, B-3, C-1
- A-3, B-2, C-1
- A-1, B-3, C-2
- A-2, B-1, C-3
Show answer
Answer: A. A-2, B-3, C-1
Answer (a). The Sama Veda gives melodies, the Yajur Veda ritual formulas and the Atharva Veda charms. Option (b) swaps the Sama and Yajur Vedas, (c) gives charms to the Sama Veda, and (d) swaps the Yajur and Atharva Vedas.
Q6. The Shatapatha Brahmana story of Videgha Mathava is usually read as a memory of
- the Battle of Ten Kings
- the eastward spread of Vedic settlement
- the decline of the Harappan cities
- the first use of coins
Show answer
Answer: B. the eastward spread of Vedic settlement
Answer (b). In the tale, Agni leads the chief eastward to the Sadanira, and the land beyond becomes Videha, which recalls the clearing of new land to the east. The Battle of Ten Kings (a) is a Rig Vedic event in the Punjab; the story is not about the Harappan decline (c); and coins (d) appear only after the Vedic age.
Q7. Consider the following statements about Later Vedic society:
1. Shudras were excluded from the upanayana.
2. Marriage within the same gotra was forbidden.
3. Sannyasa was the first of the three ashramas.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
- 1 and 2 only
- 1 and 3 only
- 2 and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
Show answer
Answer: A. 1 and 2 only
Answer (a). Statements 1 and 2 are correct. Statement 3 is wrong: brahmacharya was the first stage, and sannyasa was added as a fourth only later. Options (b), (c) and (d) include statement 3.
Q8. Which one of the following gods rose to the top of the pantheon in the Later Vedic period?
- Indra
- Agni
- Prajapati
- Varuna
Show answer
Answer: C. Prajapati
Answer (c). Prajapati, the creator, became the leading god. Indra (a) and Agni (b) were the chief gods of the Rig Veda and lost some standing later, and Varuna (d), guardian of rita, was a major Early Vedic god.
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- Ministry of Culture, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts: Vedic Heritage Portal (texts, structure and recitation of the Rig Veda and the other Samhitas) — https://vedicheritage.gov.in
- UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage: Tradition of Vedic Chanting (proclaimed 2003, inscribed on the Representative List 2008) — https://ich.unesco.org
- Archaeological Survey of India: Indian Archaeology – A Review and excavation reports on Painted Grey Ware sites (Hastinapur, Atranjikhera, Ahichchhatra) — https://asi.nic.in