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English · हिन्दी · తెలుగు · தமிழ் · മലയാളം · मराठी · ಕನ್ನಡ

Quick recap: India after the Mauryas and the Sangam age on one page

മലയാളത്തിൽ വിശദീകരണം

India after the Mauryas and the Sangam age · Quick recap · Fact-checked on · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

All three parts condensed for quick revision: the Shungas, Kanvas, Satavahanas and Kharavela; the Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Parthians and Kushanas, with the art schools and trade of the age; and the Sangam age of the far south, with one table at a glance.

Each idea is explained first in Malayalam (മലയാളം), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Malayalam and revise it in English.

ബി.സി. 185ൽ പുഷ്യമിത്ര ശുംഗൻ അവസാന മൗര്യൻ ബൃഹദ്രഥനെ വധിച്ച ശേഷം ഗുപ്തർ വരെ ഒരൊറ്റ സാമ്രാജ്യമുണ്ടായില്ല. ശുംഗർ ഗംഗാതടത്തിൽ; പുഷ്യമിത്രന്റെ രണ്ട് അശ്വമേധങ്ങൾ അയോധ്യാലിഖിതത്തിൽ; അഗ്നിമിത്രൻ കാളിദാസ നാടകത്തിലെ നായകൻ. ഭർഹുത്, സാഞ്ചി എന്നിവിടങ്ങളിൽ ബുദ്ധൻ അടയാളങ്ങളിലൂടെ മാത്രം. ബേസ്നഗറിൽ ഗ്രീക്ക് ദൂതൻ ഹെലിയോഡോറസിന്റെ ഗരുഡസ്തംഭം — വിദേശി നമ്മുടെ ദൈവത്തിന്റെ ഭക്തനായതുപോലെ. കണ്വർ വന്നുപോയി; കലിംഗത്തിൽ ജൈനരാജാവ് ഖാരവേലൻ ഹാത്തിഗുംഫ ലിഖിതത്തിൽ വർഷംതോറുമുള്ള ഡയറി എഴുതി. (→ English: Shungas · Heliodorus pillar · Kanvas · Hathigumpha inscription · हिन्दी: शुंग · हेलियोडोरस स्तंभ · कण्व · हाथीगुंफा अभिलेख)

In exam EnglishWhen the last Mauryan king, Brihadratha, was killed by his Brahmana commander Pushyamitra Shunga around 185 BCE, no single power replaced the empire until the Guptas. The Shungas ruled the Ganga valley and Malwa; an Ayodhya record left by a later ruler, Dhanadeva, tells us that Pushyamitra performed the horse sacrifice twice, and his son Agnimitra is the hero of Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitram. Buddhist art flourished all the same: the railings of Bharhut and the stone casing of the Sanchi stupa show the Buddha only through symbols. At Besnagar, Heliodorus, envoy of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas, set up a Garuda pillar to Vasudeva and called himself a Bhagavata. The Kanvas replaced the last Shunga, Devabhuti, and were soon ended by the Satavahanas. In Kalinga, the Jain king Kharavela recorded his reign year by year in the Hathigumpha inscription near Bhubaneswar (Part 1).

ശാതവാഹനർ (പുരാണങ്ങളിൽ ആന്ധ്രർ) — തലസ്ഥാനം പ്രതിഷ്ഠാനം (പൈഠാൻ). നാനേഘാട്ട് ലിഖിതം രാജ്ഞി നാഗനികയുടേത്; നാസിക് ലിഖിതത്തിൽ ഗൗതമി ബാലശ്രീ മകൻ ഗൗതമീപുത്ര ശാതകർണിയെ പുകഴ്ത്തി — ശകരെ തോൽപിച്ചു; തോറ്റ നഹപാനന്റെ വെള്ളിനാണയങ്ങൾ ഗൗതമീപുത്രൻ സ്വന്തം പേരിൽ വീണ്ടും അടിച്ചിറക്കി. അമ്മയുടെ പേരിലുള്ള രാജനാമങ്ങൾ — നാട്ടിൽ 'ഗൗതമിയുടെ മകൻ' എന്നു വിളിക്കുന്നതുപോലെ. പ്രാകൃതം, ഈയനാണയം, കപ്പൽ മുദ്രയുള്ള നാണയം, നികുതിയില്ലാത്ത ഭൂദാനം; കാർലെ, നാസിക് ഗുഹകൾ, അമരാവതി സ്തൂപം ഇവരുടെ കാലത്ത്. (→ English: Satavahanas · Nasik inscription · Gautamiputra Satakarni · हिन्दी: सातवाहन · नासिक अभिलेख · गौतमीपुत्र शातकर्णि)

In exam EnglishThe Satavahanas, the Andhras of the Puranas, held the Deccan from their capital Pratishthana (Paithan). The Naneghat inscription of queen Naganika records the Vedic sacrifices of Satakarni I's family, and at Nasik his mother Gautami Balashri had an inscription carved hailing Gautamiputra Satakarni as the king who crushed the Shakas, Greeks and Parthians and wiped out Nahapana's Kshaharata line; Nahapana's silver coins were restruck in his name. Satavahana kings carried their mothers' names, used Prakrit for their records, issued coins of lead and potin (Yajna Sri's coins show ships), and made the earliest known tax-free land grants to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks. The rock-cut chaityas and viharas of Bhaja, Karle, Nasik and Kanheri and the stupa at Amaravati belong to their age.

വടക്കുപടിഞ്ഞാറു നിന്ന് നാലു തിരകൾ: ഇന്തോ-ഗ്രീക്കുകാർ (മെനാൻഡർ — മിലിന്ദപഞ്ഹ, മുഖചിത്ര നാണയങ്ങൾ), ശകർ (രുദ്രദാമന്റെ ജൂനാഗഢ് സംസ്കൃത ലിഖിതം, സുദർശന തടാകം നന്നാക്കൽ), പാർത്ഥിയർ (ഗോണ്ടോഫർണസ്), കുഷാണർ (വിമ കഡ്ഫിസസിന്റെ സ്വർണനാണയങ്ങൾ, കനിഷ്കൻ, നാലാം ബൗദ്ധസംഗീതി). കടലിൽ തിരയ്ക്കു മേൽ തിര വരുന്നതുപോലെ. രണ്ടു കാലഗണനകൾ ഇന്നും: വിക്രമ സംവത് (ബി.സി. 57), ശകവർഷം (എ.ഡി. 78). (→ English: Indo-Greeks · Rudradaman · Kanishka · Shaka era · हिन्दी: हिंद-यवन · रुद्रदामन · कनिष्क · शक संवत)

In exam EnglishThrough the northwest came four waves of rulers (Part 2). The Indo-Greeks of Bactria, led into India by Demetrius, are best remembered through Menander (Milinda) of Sakala, who questions the monk Nagasena in the Milindapanha, and through portrait coins with Greek and Kharoshthi legends. The Shakas followed; their Western Kshatrapas ruled Gujarat and Malwa, and at Junagadh, around 150 CE, Rudradaman I left one of the first lengthy records written in Sanskrit, telling how he restored the Sudarshana lake first built under Chandragupta Maurya. The Parthian Gondophares is known from the Takht-i-Bahi inscription and the St Thomas tradition. The Kushanas, a branch of the Yuezhi, rose under Kujula and Vima Kadphises, whose gold coins show Shiva; the Rabatak inscription lists Kanishka's ancestors. Kanishka ruled from Purushapura, and the fourth Buddhist council met in Kashmir under him. The Shaka era (78 CE) and the Vikrama Samvat (57 BCE) both date from these centuries.

കലയും വ്യാപാരവും തഴച്ചു. ഗാന്ധാര കലാശൈലി — ചാരക്കല്ല്, ഗ്രീക്ക്-റോമൻ ഛായ; മഥുര കലാശൈലി — ചുവന്ന മണൽക്കല്ല്, ബൗദ്ധ, ജൈന, ഹിന്ദു പ്രതിമകൾ; അമരാവതി കലാശൈലി — വെള്ള ചുണ്ണാമ്പുകല്ലിൽ കഥാശില്പങ്ങൾ. മൂന്നിലും ബുദ്ധൻ മനുഷ്യരൂപത്തിൽ. ശ്രേണികൾ ബാങ്കുകൾ പോലെ പ്രവർത്തിച്ചു. മൺസൂൺ കാറ്റിൽ കപ്പലുകൾ കുരുമുളക് കൊണ്ടുപോയി റോമൻ സ്വർണം കൊണ്ടുവന്നു — കാറ്റിന്റെ ദിശ അറിയുന്ന മുക്കുവൻ വള്ളം തുഴയുന്നതുപോലെ. മഹായാനവും ഭക്തിയും വളർന്നു. (→ English: Gandhara school of art · Mathura school of art · Amaravati school of art · हिन्दी: गांधार कला शैली · मथुरा कला शैली · अमरावती कला शैली)

In exam EnglishThe age was rich in art and trade. The Gandhara school of art of the northwest carved grey schist with Greco-Roman features, the Mathura school of art used red sandstone and made Buddhist, Jain and Brahmanical images, and the Amaravati school of art of the Krishna valley produced narrative reliefs in white limestone; all three showed the Buddha in human form. Guilds of artisans also acted as bankers. The Kushanas controlled the overland routes to Central Asia, while ships using the monsoon winds carried pepper, cotton cloth and gems to the Roman world and brought back gold and silver coins, wine and glass, as the Periplus, Pliny and the finds at Arikamedu show. In religion, Mahayana Buddhism with its bodhisattva ideal grew strong, and devotion to Vasudeva-Krishna and Shiva spread, often under foreign patrons.

തെക്കേയറ്റത്ത് സംഘകാലം സംഘസാഹിത്യം വഴി അറിയാം: തൊൽക്കാപ്പിയം, എട്ടുത്തൊകൈ, പത്തുപ്പാട്ട്, തിരുക്കുറൾ, ഇരട്ടക്കാവ്യങ്ങൾ. മൂന്നു രാജ്യങ്ങൾ: ചേരർ (വില്ല്, മുസിരിസ്), ചോളർ (കടുവ, പുഹാർ, കരികാലൻ), പാണ്ഡ്യർ (മത്സ്യം, കൊർക്കൈ, നെടുഞ്ചെഴിയൻ) — ഒരു തറവാട്ടിൽ മൂന്നു സഹോദരന്മാർ വെവ്വേറെ മുദ്രകളോടെ കഴിയുന്നതുപോലെ. അഞ്ചു തിണ നിലങ്ങൾ, അകം-പുറം കവിതകൾ, വീരക്കല്ലുകൾ, മുരുകൻ, റോമൻ കപ്പലുകൾ. ഒടുവിൽ കളഭ്രർ, പിന്നീട് പാണ്ഡ്യരും പല്ലവരും. (→ English: Sangam literature · tinai · Cheras · Cholas · Pandyas · हिन्दी: संगम साहित्य · तिणै · चेर · चोल · पांड्य)

In exam EnglishIn the far south the Sangam age (Part 3) is known from the Sangam literature: a grammar work called the Tolkappiyam, two big poetry collections (Ettuttogai, eight books, and Pattuppattu, ten long songs), the later Tirukkural, and the twin epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai, with Tamil-Brahmi cave inscriptions, Ashoka's edicts and Roman writers as further evidence. Three crowned kingdoms shared the land: the Cheras (Vanji, the port Muziris, the bow), the Cholas (Uraiyur, Puhar, the tiger, Karikala) and the Pandyas (Madurai, Korkai, the fish, Nedunjeliyan), with velir chiefs below them. Poets sorted the land into five tinai (landscape) and their verse into akam (love) and puram (war and public life). Kings were hereditary, warriors were honoured with hero stones, Murugan was the chief god, and Roman ships came for pepper. The Kalabhras ended the age, until the Pandyas and Pallavas rose in the late sixth century.
The chapter at a glance
Power or topicKey points to hold
Shungas (from about 185 BCE)Pushyamitra: horse sacrifices (Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva); Agnimitra; Bharhut and Sanchi; Heliodorus pillar at Besnagar
SatavahanasPratishthana; Naneghat (Naganika) and Nasik (Gautami Balashri) inscriptions; Gautamiputra Satakarni; matronymics; tax-free land grants
Kharavela of KalingaJain king; Hathigumpha inscription near Bhubaneswar, a year-by-year record
Indo-GreeksDemetrius; Menander (Milinda) at Sakala; Milindapanha; bilingual portrait coins
ShakasWestern Kshatrapas; Rudradaman I, Junagadh inscription (about 150 CE), Sudarshana lake
KushanasYuezhi; Vima Kadphises' gold coins; Kanishka, Purushapura, fourth Buddhist council; Rabatak inscription
Art and tradeGandhara (grey schist), Mathura (red sandstone), Amaravati (white limestone); guilds; Periplus, Muziris, Arikamedu
Sangam ageCheras (bow), Cholas (tiger), Pandyas (fish); five tinai; akam and puram; hero stones; Kalabhras end the age

Exam traps

Recap

Practice questions

Q1. Kalidasa's play Malavikagnimitram has as its hero

  1. Pushyamitra Shunga
  2. Agnimitra
  3. Vasudeva Kanva
  4. Kharavela
Show answer

Answer: B. Agnimitra

Answer (b). Agnimitra, Pushyamitra's son, is the hero. Pushyamitra (a) is his father; Vasudeva Kanva (c) founded the Kanva line; Kharavela (d) was a king of Kalinga.

Q2. Consider the following statements:
1. The Heliodorus pillar at Besnagar was set up by an envoy of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas.
2. Heliodorus dedicated the pillar to the Buddha.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Answer (a). Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is wrong: it is a Garuda pillar dedicated to Vasudeva, and Heliodorus called himself a Bhagavata. So (b) and (c) accept the false statement, and (d) rejects the true one.

Q3. The Nasik inscription that celebrates the victories of Gautamiputra Satakarni was set up by

  1. Queen Naganika
  2. Gautami Balashri
  3. Nahapana
  4. Rudradaman I
Show answer

Answer: B. Gautami Balashri

Answer (b). His mother Gautami Balashri set it up. Naganika (a) is linked with the Naneghat inscription; Nahapana (c) was the Kshaharata ruler Gautamiputra defeated; Rudradaman (d) left the Junagadh inscription.

Q4. Match List I (ruler) with List II (associated record or text):
List I: A. Menander B. Rudradaman I C. Kharavela
List II: 1. Hathigumpha inscription 2. Milindapanha 3. Junagadh inscription
Select the correct code:

  1. A-2, B-3, C-1
  2. A-3, B-2, C-1
  3. A-2, B-1, C-3
  4. A-1, B-3, C-2
Show answer

Answer: A. A-2, B-3, C-1

Answer (a). Menander appears in the Milindapanha, Rudradaman in the Junagadh inscription, and Kharavela in the Hathigumpha inscription. Option (b) swaps Menander and Rudradaman; (c) swaps Rudradaman and Kharavela; (d) swaps Menander and Kharavela.

Q5. The Shaka era, on which India's national calendar is based, begins in

  1. 57 BCE
  2. 78 CE
  3. 150 CE
  4. 320 CE
Show answer

Answer: B. 78 CE

Answer (b). The Shaka era begins in 78 CE. 57 BCE (a) is the start of the Vikrama Samvat; 150 CE (c) is the approximate date of Rudradaman's Junagadh inscription; 320 CE (d) is close to the traditional start of the Gupta era.

Q6. Consider the following statements:
1. The Gandhara school of sculpture worked mainly in grey schist and shows Greco-Roman features.
2. The Amaravati school flourished in the Krishna valley under Satavahana and Ikshvaku patronage.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: C. Both 1 and 2

Answer (c). Both statements are correct. Options (a) and (b) each drop a true statement, and (d) rejects both.

Q7. Which of the following Tamil works is a Buddhist epic?

  1. Tolkappiyam
  2. Tirukkural
  3. Manimekalai
  4. Purananuru
Show answer

Answer: C. Manimekalai

Answer (c). The Manimekalai tells of Kovalan's daughter becoming a Buddhist nun. The Tolkappiyam (a) is a grammar; the Tirukkural (b) is a book of couplets on virtue, wealth and love; the Purananuru (d) is an anthology of puram poems.

Q8. Match List I (dynasty) with List II (emblem):
List I: A. Cheras B. Cholas C. Pandyas
List II: 1. Fish 2. Bow 3. Tiger
Select the correct code:

  1. A-2, B-3, C-1
  2. A-3, B-2, C-1
  3. A-1, B-3, C-2
  4. A-2, B-1, C-3
Show answer

Answer: A. A-2, B-3, C-1

Answer (a). Cheras - bow, Cholas - tiger, Pandyas - fish. Option (b) swaps the Chera and Chola emblems; (c) swaps the Chera and Pandya emblems; (d) swaps the Chola and Pandya emblems.

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