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Biodiversity and wildlife treaties

தமிழில் விளக்கம்

International environmental conventions · Part 1 / 2 · Fact-checked on 8 November 2026 · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

How environmental treaties are built and where they came from; the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Cartagena and Nagoya Protocols, the Aichi targets and the Kunming-Montreal framework; CITES and its appendices; the Convention on Migratory Species; the Ramsar Convention; the whaling convention.

Each idea is explained first in Tamil (தமிழ்), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Tamil and revise it in English.

பறவைகளுக்குக் கடவுச்சீட்டு தேவையில்லை; ஒரு வலசைப் பறவை பத்து நாடுகளின் மேல் பறக்கிறது. அதனால் நாடுகள் சேர்ந்து உடன்படிக்கைகள் செய்தன. இந்தப் பகுதியில் உயிரினங்கள் பற்றிய உடன்படிக்கைகள்: உயிரியல் பன்முகத்தன்மை உடன்படிக்கை, அதன் இரண்டு நெறிமுறைகள், உலக இலக்குகள், வனவிலங்கு வணிகம், வலசை, ஈரநிலங்கள், திமிங்கிலங்கள் பற்றிய உடன்படிக்கைகள். வேதிப்பொருட்கள், நிலம் அடுத்த பகுதியில். (→ English: Convention on Biological Diversity; CITES; CMS; Ramsar · हिन्दी: जैव विविधता अभिसमय; साइटीज़; CMS; रामसर)

In exam EnglishMany environmental problems cross borders: migratory birds fly over a dozen countries, wildlife parts are smuggled from one continent to another, and the genes of a forest plant can end up in a medicine made abroad. Countries have answered with treaties. This chapter is the map of those treaties, in two parts. This first part covers the living world: the Convention on Biological Diversity and its two protocols, the global biodiversity targets, and the older wildlife treaties on trade (CITES), migration (CMS), wetlands (Ramsar) and whaling. Part 2 covers chemicals, waste and land, and the bodies such as UNEP and IUCN behind them.

உடன்படிக்கைகள் வீடு கட்டுவது போல: முதலில் அஸ்திவாரம் போன்ற கட்டமைப்பு உடன்படிக்கை, பிறகு அறைகள் போன்ற நெறிமுறைகள். கையெழுத்து இட்டால் 'செய்வேன்' என்ற வாக்கு மட்டும்; ஏற்ற பிறகே கட்டுப்பாடு. ஒவ்வொரு உடன்படிக்கைக்கும் உறுப்பு நாடுகளின் மாநாடு, ஒரு செயலகம் உண்டு. 1972 ஸ்டாக்ஹோம் மாநாட்டால் UNEP பிறந்தது, ஜூன் 5 சுற்றுச்சூழல் நாள் ஆனது. 1992 ரியோவில் மூன்று உடன்படிக்கைகளின் வழி திறந்தது. (→ English: framework convention; protocol; ratification; Conference of the Parties; Rio conventions · हिन्दी: ढाँचा अभिसमय; प्रोटोकॉल; अनुसमर्थन; पक्षकारों का सम्मेलन; रियो अभिसमय)

In exam EnglishMost environmental treaties share one design. A framework convention sets out aims, principles and institutions, and later protocols add detailed rules. A country first signs a treaty, showing intent, and is bound only once it ratifies or accedes. Each treaty has a Conference of the Parties that meets regularly to take decisions and a secretariat that runs the work between meetings. The modern system began with the UN Conference on the Human Environment at Stockholm in June 1972, which led to the creation of UNEP; 5 June, its opening day, became World Environment Day. Twenty years later the Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro (June 1992) opened two treaties for signature, the climate convention and the biodiversity convention, and started talks on a third, on desertification; together these are called the three Rio conventions.

உயிரியல் பன்முகத்தன்மை உடன்படிக்கை மூன்று சொற்களில்: காப்பாற்று, அறிவுடன் பயன்படுத்து, பயனை நியாயமாகப் பகிர். முன்பு காட்டுச் செடியை யாரும் எடுத்துச் செல்லலாம் என்ற பொதுச் சொத்தாக நினைத்தார்கள்; இப்போது அது அந்த நாட்டுடையது, நம் வீட்டுக் கொல்லை மாமரம் நமதே என்பது போல. ஒவ்வொரு நாடும் தன் பல்லுயிர்ப் பெருக்கம் காக்கும் திட்டம் எழுத வேண்டும். அமெரிக்கா உறுப்பினர் இல்லை; நம் நாடு 1994-ல் சேர்ந்து 2002 சட்டம் கொண்டுவந்தது. (→ English: Convention on Biological Diversity; biodiversity; sovereign rights; national biodiversity strategy and action plan · हिन्दी: जैव विविधता अभिसमय; जैव विविधता; संप्रभु अधिकार; राष्ट्रीय जैव विविधता रणनीति और कार्य योजना)

In exam EnglishThe Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted at Nairobi on 22 May 1992, a date now marked as the International Day for Biological Diversity, opened for signature at Rio on 5 June 1992 and entered into force on 29 December 1993. Article 1 gives it three objectives: the conservation of biodiversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. Before the convention, plants and microbes were often treated as a common heritage that anyone could collect; Article 15 instead confirms that states have sovereign rights over their genetic resources. Each party must prepare a national biodiversity strategy and action plan, and protect species both in their habitats and outside them. The secretariat is in Montreal. The United States signed but never ratified. India ratified in 1994 and passed the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 to carry the convention into national law.

உயிரிப் பாதுகாப்பு குறித்த கார்டஜீனா நெறிமுறை மரபுமாற்றப்பட்ட உயிருள்ள உயிரினம் ஒரு நாட்டிலிருந்து இன்னொரு நாட்டுக்குச் செல்லும்போதான விதி. வயலில் விதைக்க புதிய வகை விதையை அனுப்பும் முன், இறக்குமதி நாட்டுக்கு முன்கூட்டியே சொல்லி 'சரி' பெற வேண்டும், வீட்டுக்குப் புதிய ஆளைக் கூட்டி வரும் முன் பெரியவர்களைக் கேட்பது போல. உண்ணும் தானியத்துக்கு எளிய முறை. கேடு முழுமையாக நிரூபிக்கப்படாவிட்டாலும் முன்னெச்சரிக்கைக் கொள்கை யால் 'வேண்டாம்' எனலாம். (→ English: Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety; living modified organism; advance informed agreement; precautionary principle · हिन्दी: जैव सुरक्षा पर कार्टाजेना प्रोटोकॉल; जीवित संशोधित जीव; अग्रिम सूचित सहमति; एहतियाती सिद्धांत)

In exam EnglishThe first protocol under the CBD deals with biotechnology. The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was adopted in Montreal on 29 January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September 2003. It governs the movement across borders of a living modified organism, meaning a living organism with a new combination of genetic material made through modern biotechnology, such as a genetically engineered seed. Before the first shipment of an organism meant to be released into the environment, the importing country must be told in advance and must give its consent: the advance informed agreement procedure. Organisms meant for food, feed or processing, such as modified grain, follow a lighter procedure. The protocol lets countries act on the precautionary principle, refusing an import even without full scientific certainty about harm, and information is shared through a Biosafety Clearing-House. A supplementary protocol on liability and redress, agreed at Nagoya and Kuala Lumpur in 2010, entered into force in 2018.

நகோயா நெறிமுறை என்றால் அணுகல் மற்றும் பயன் பகிர்வு விதி. ஒரு வெளிநாட்டு நிறுவனம் நம் காட்டுச் செடியால் மருந்து செய்ய வேண்டுமென்றால், முதலில் நம் நாட்டின் அனுமதி பெற்று, பயனை எப்படிப் பகிர்வது என்று ஒப்பந்தம் செய்ய வேண்டும். அந்தச் செடியின் பயன் ஒரு பழங்குடிச் சமூகத்துக்குத் தெரிந்த அறிவு என்றால், அவர்களுக்கும் பங்கு. பாட்டியின் வைத்தியத்தை யாரோ காப்புரிமை செய்தால் அது கொள்ளை; மஞ்சள் காப்புரிமை ரத்து அப்படிப்பட்டதே. (→ English: Nagoya Protocol; access and benefit sharing; prior informed consent; mutually agreed terms; biopiracy · हिन्दी: नागोया प्रोटोकॉल; पहुँच और लाभ साझेदारी; पूर्व सूचित सहमति; पारस्परिक रूप से सहमत शर्तें; जैव-दस्युता)

In exam EnglishThe second protocol puts the CBD's third objective into practice. The Nagoya Protocol on access and benefit sharing was adopted at COP10 in Nagoya, Japan, on 29 October 2010 and entered into force on 12 October 2014. A company or researcher who wants to use a country's genetic resources must first obtain that country's prior informed consent and agree mutually agreed terms on how benefits will be shared. Where the resource comes with the traditional knowledge of indigenous and local communities, their consent and a share of benefits are required too. The problem it targets is biopiracy: in 1997, for instance, a US patent on using turmeric to heal wounds was revoked after India's Council of Scientific and Industrial Research showed the use was already known. India ratified the protocol in 2012, the year it hosted COP11 of the CBD at Hyderabad, and applies it through the National Biodiversity Authority.

நாடுகள் சேர்ந்து இலக்குகள் வைத்தன. 2010-ல் இருபது ஐச்சி இலக்குகள்; 2020-க்குள் ஒன்றுகூட முழுமையாக நிறைவேறவில்லை, தேர்வில் இருபது கேள்விகளுக்கும் முழு மதிப்பெண் வராதது போல. 2022-ல் புதிய கட்டமைப்பு: 2030-க்குள் நிலம், கடல் இரண்டிலும் 30 சதவீதம் காப்பது, சீரழிந்த இயற்கையில் 30 சதவீதம் சரிசெய்வது, கேடான மானியங்களைக் குறைப்பது. 2024 காலியில் மரபணுத் தகவல் பயனுக்கு நிதியம். (→ English: Aichi Biodiversity Targets; Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework; 30 by 30; Cali Fund · हिन्दी: आइची जैव विविधता लक्ष्य; कुनमिंग-मॉन्ट्रियल वैश्विक जैव विविधता ढाँचा; 30 बाय 30; कैली कोष)

In exam EnglishThe CBD's parties also set shared targets. At the same Nagoya meeting in 2010 they adopted a Strategic Plan for 2011–2020 with twenty Aichi Biodiversity Targets; Target 11 asked for at least 17 per cent of land and inland waters and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas to be protected. The convention's own Global Biodiversity Outlook of 2020 found that none of the twenty had been fully met. Their successor, the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, was adopted at COP15 in Montreal in December 2022, with China presiding. It has four goals for 2050 and 23 targets for 2030, the best known being '30 by 30': conserving at least 30 per cent of land and inland waters and 30 per cent of coastal and marine areas by 2030. Other targets include restoring 30 per cent of degraded ecosystems and cutting harmful subsidies by at least 500 billion US dollars a year. COP16 at Cali, Colombia (2024) set up the Cali Fund for sharing benefits from digital genetic sequence data.

சைட்டீஸ் என்றால் காட்டு உயிரினங்களின் சர்வதேச வணிகத்தின் மேல் காவல். நாட்டுக்குள் வேட்டை அதன் வேலை இல்லை; எல்லையைத் தாண்டும்போது மட்டுமே அதன் விதி. யானைத் தந்தம், புலித் தோல், அரிய மரம் எதுவானாலும் சரியான ஆவணங்கள் இருந்தால்தான் தாண்ட வேண்டும், பயணிக்குக் கடவுச்சீட்டும் விசாவும் வேண்டும் என்பது போல. இனங்கள் மூன்று பட்டியல்களில் உள்ளன. நம் நாடு 1976-ல் சேர்ந்தது; 2022 வனவிலங்குச் சட்டத் திருத்தத்தில் அதற்காகப் புதிய அட்டவணை வந்தது. (→ English: CITES; Appendices I, II and III; permits; Wild Life (Protection) Act · हिन्दी: साइटीज़; परिशिष्ट I, II और III; परमिट; वन्य जीव (संरक्षण) अधिनियम)

In exam EnglishCITES, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, is older and narrower. It was signed in Washington on 3 March 1973, now World Wildlife Day, and entered into force on 1 July 1975. It regulates only international trade, not hunting or habitat inside a country, and it works through permits: a listed specimen, alive or dead, whole or a part such as ivory, skin or timber, may cross a border only with the right papers. Species are placed in three appendices (see the table). Appendices I and II are amended by a two-thirds vote of the Conference of the Parties; a single party can list a species in Appendix III on its own. The secretariat in Geneva is administered by UNEP. India joined in 1976, and the 2022 amendment to the Wild Life (Protection) Act added a schedule for specimens listed under CITES.

மூன்று பட்டியல்கள் மருத்துவமனை நோயாளிகள் போல. முதல் பட்டியல் தீவிர சிகிச்சைப் பிரிவு: புலி, யானை, கடல் ஆமைகள்; வணிகம் கிட்டத்தட்டத் தடை, ஏற்றுமதி-இறக்குமதி இரண்டு அனுமதிகளும் வேண்டும். இரண்டாம் பட்டியல் பொது வார்டு: இப்போது ஆபத்து இல்லாவிட்டாலும் கவனம் வேண்டும்; ஏற்றுமதி நாடு 'கேடு இல்லை' என்று சொன்னால் போதும். மூன்றாம் பட்டியல்: ஒரு நாடு தன் உயிரினத்துக்காக மற்றவர்களின் உதவி கேட்கிறது. (→ English: Appendix I; Appendix II; Appendix III; export permit; import permit · हिन्दी: परिशिष्ट I; परिशिष्ट II; परिशिष्ट III; निर्यात परमिट; आयात परमिट)

In exam EnglishThe three appendices are graded by risk. Appendix I holds species threatened with extinction, such as tigers, Asian elephants and all sea turtles; commercial trade in wild specimens is in principle banned, and any trade needs both an export permit and an import permit. Appendix II holds species not necessarily threatened now but that could become so unless trade is controlled, along with look-alike species that are hard to tell apart from threatened ones; trade is allowed with an export permit issued after the exporting country finds it will not harm the species' survival. Appendix III holds species that one country protects and for which it asks other parties for help in controlling trade.

The three appendices of CITES
Appendix	Which species	Trade rule
I	Threatened with extinction (e.g. tiger, Asian elephant, sea turtles)	Commercial trade in wild specimens banned in principle; export and import permits
II	Not necessarily threatened now, but could be without control; look-alike species	Allowed with an export permit after a no-harm finding
III	Protected by one party that asks others for help	Listed by that party alone; export permit or certificate of origin

ஒரு நாட்டில் காத்த பறவை பக்கத்து நாட்டில் வேட்டையாடப்பட்டால் பயனில்லை; ஊர்க் குளத்தருகே நாம் காத்த கொக்கைப் பக்கத்து ஊரில் அடித்துவிட்டது போல. அதனால் வலசை இனங்கள் உடன்படிக்கை. முதல் பட்டியல் உயிரினங்களைப் பிடிப்பது தடை; இரண்டாம் பட்டியலுக்கு நாடுகளுக்கிடையே தனி ஒப்பந்தங்கள். நம் நாடு 2020-ல் காந்திநகரில் மாநாடு நடத்தியது; கானமயில், ஆசிய யானை, வங்காள வரகுக்கோழி முதல் பட்டியலில் சேர்ந்தன. (→ English: Convention on Migratory Species; Bonn Convention; range states; memorandum of understanding · हिन्दी: प्रवासी प्रजाति अभिसमय; बॉन अभिसमय; क्षेत्रीय राज्य; समझौता ज्ञापन)

In exam EnglishTrade is one threat; migration brings another, because an animal protected in one country can be shot or lose its stopover site in the next. The Convention on Migratory Species, also called the Bonn Convention, was signed at Bonn on 23 June 1979 and entered into force on 1 November 1983. Appendix I lists migratory species that are endangered, and range states must strictly protect them, prohibiting their taking and conserving their habitats. Appendix II lists species that need international cooperation; for these the convention encourages range states to make separate agreements, some legally binding and many as non-binding memoranda of understanding. Its secretariat in Bonn is administered by UNEP. India has been a party since 1983 and hosted COP13 at Gandhinagar in February 2020, where the Great Indian Bustard, the Asian elephant and the Bengal florican were added to Appendix I.

ராம்சர் உடன்படிக்கை ஈரநிலம் பற்றியது, 1971-ல் ஈரானில்; இது ஐநா உடன்படிக்கை இல்லை. மூன்று தூண்கள்: எல்லா ஈரநிலங்களையும் அறிவுடன் பயன்படுத்துவது, முக்கியமானவற்றைப் பட்டியலில் வைப்பது, எல்லை தாண்டிய ஒத்துழைப்பு. அறிவுடன் பயன்படுத்துவது என்றால் பூட்டுவது இல்லை; குளத்தில் மீன்பிடி தொடரலாம், குளத்தின் நலம் கெடாமல். ஒரு தளம் சேதமடைந்தால் மாண்ட்ரோ பதிவேடு டில் வைக்கிறார்கள், நோயாளியைத் தனிக் கண்காணிப்பில் வைப்பது போல. (→ English: Ramsar Convention; wetland; wise use; Ramsar site; Montreux Record · हिन्दी: रामसर अभिसमय; आर्द्रभूमि; विवेकपूर्ण उपयोग; रामसर स्थल; मॉन्ट्रो रिकॉर्ड)

In exam EnglishThe Ramsar Convention, the Convention on Wetlands, is one of the oldest of the modern global environmental treaties. It was signed at Ramsar, Iran, on 2 February 1971, now World Wetlands Day, and entered into force on 21 December 1975. It is not a UN treaty; its secretariat sits in Gland, Switzerland, alongside IUCN. Parties accept three pillars: the wise use of every wetland in their territory, not only listed ones; designating suitable wetlands for the List of Wetlands of International Importance, whose entries are called Ramsar sites; and cooperating across borders. Wise use does not mean locking wetlands away; fishing, grazing or tourism can continue if the wetland's ecological character is kept. Where a listed site's character has changed or is likely to change because of human activity, it can be placed on the Montreux Record, a register of sites needing priority attention. India joined on 1 February 1982; its sites and their number are taught in the protected areas chapter.

திமிங்கில உடன்படிக்கை 1946-ல் வேட்டைத் தொழிலுக்காகப் பிறந்தது, பிறகு காக்கும் பக்கம் திரும்பியது: 1986 முதல் வணிக வேட்டைக்கு இடைநிறுத்தம். சிலர் 'ஆராய்ச்சி' என்ற பெயரில் வேட்டையைத் தொடர்ந்தார்கள்; ஜப்பான் 2019-ல் ஆணையத்தை விட்டு வெளியேறியது. 1972 UNESCO உலகப் பாரம்பரிய உடன்படிக்கை கோயில்கள், காடுகள் போன்ற விலைமதிப்பற்ற இடங்களுக்காக; அது வனவிலங்கு உடன்படிக்கை இல்லை. (→ English: International Whaling Commission; moratorium on commercial whaling; World Heritage Convention · हिन्दी: अंतरराष्ट्रीय व्हेल आयोग; व्यावसायिक व्हेल शिकार पर विराम; विश्व धरोहर अभिसमय)

In exam EnglishTwo more treaties complete the picture. The International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling was signed in Washington in 1946 and set up the International Whaling Commission. Founded to manage whale stocks for the whaling industry, the Commission later turned towards conservation: in 1982 it agreed a pause on commercial whaling, which took effect from the 1986 season and still stands. Countries have found ways around it, through objections and permits for so-called scientific whaling, and Japan left the Commission in 2019 to resume commercial hunting in its own waters. The World Heritage Convention of 1972, run by UNESCO, protects cultural and natural sites of outstanding universal value; it is a heritage treaty rather than a wildlife treaty, though many natural sites are national parks, and India's sites are covered in the protected areas chapter.

மொத்தமாகப் பார்த்தால், வேலையைப் பகிர்ந்தார்கள். உயிரியல் பன்முகத்தன்மை உடன்படிக்கை பெரிய குடை; உயிரிப் பாதுகாப்பு குறித்த கார்டஜீனா நெறிமுறை மரபுமாற்ற உயிரினங்களின் ஆபத்திலிருந்து காக்கிறது, நகோயா நெறிமுறை பயன் நியாயமாகப் பகிரப்படுவதைப் பார்க்கிறது. சைட்டீஸ் எல்லைக் காவலர், வலசை இனங்கள் உடன்படிக்கை பயணிக்கும் உயிரினங்களின் துணை, ராம்சர் உடன்படிக்கை ஈரநிலங்களின் காவலர். நம் நாடு எல்லாவற்றிலும் உறுப்பினர். (→ English: Convention on Biological Diversity; Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety; Nagoya Protocol; CITES; Convention on Migratory Species; Ramsar Convention · हिन्दी: जैव विविधता अभिसमय; जैव सुरक्षा पर कार्टाजेना प्रोटोकॉल; नागोया प्रोटोकॉल; साइटीज़; प्रवासी प्रजाति अभिसमय; रामसर अभिसमय)

In exam EnglishTaken together, these treaties divide the work. The Convention on Biological Diversity is the broad umbrella for all life, with the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety guarding against risks from modified organisms and the Nagoya Protocol making sure that those who use genetic resources share the gains; its targets, from Aichi to 30 by 30, set the direction. CITES polices the border, the Convention on Migratory Species follows animals across their range, and the Ramsar Convention looks after one kind of habitat. India is a party to all of them, carrying them into law through the Biological Diversity Act and the Wild Life (Protection) Act. Part 2 turns to the treaties that keep harmful chemicals and waste in check and to the bodies that support the whole system.

Biodiversity and wildlife treaties compared
Treaty	Signed or adopted	In force	Focus	India
Ramsar Convention	1971, Ramsar (Iran)	1975	Wetlands	1982
CITES	1973, Washington	1975	International wildlife trade	1976
CMS (Bonn)	1979, Bonn	1983	Migratory species	1983
CBD	1992, Nairobi; opened at Rio	1993	Conservation, sustainable use, benefit sharing	1994
Cartagena Protocol	2000, Montreal	2003	Living modified organisms	Party
Nagoya Protocol	2010, Nagoya	2014	Access and benefit sharing	2012

Exam traps

The CBD has three objectives: conservation, sustainable use and fair and equitable benefit sharing. It confirms states' sovereign rights over genetic resources; it does not declare them a common heritage of mankind. The United States is not a party.
The Cartagena Protocol is about living modified organisms and biosafety; the Nagoya Protocol is about access and benefit sharing. Both are protocols to the CBD, not to the UNFCCC.
The Aichi targets (2010) and the Nagoya Protocol were adopted at the same COP10 in Nagoya; the Kunming-Montreal framework (2022) was adopted at Montreal, not Kunming, though China presided.
'30 by 30' means 30 per cent of land and inland waters AND 30 per cent of coastal and marine areas conserved by 2030; Aichi Target 11 asked for 17 and 10 per cent.
CITES regulates only international trade, not domestic hunting. Appendix I trade needs both export and import permits; Appendix II needs only an export permit; Appendix III is listed by a single party.
The Ramsar Convention is not a UN treaty and is older (1971) than CITES (1973) and the Stockholm Conference (1972). Wise use applies to all wetlands, not only Ramsar sites. The Montreux Record lists Ramsar sites under threat.
CMS is the Bonn Convention (1979) on migratory animals; India hosted its COP13 at Gandhinagar in 2020. Do not confuse it with the Bonn-based UNFCCC secretariat.
World Wildlife Day (3 March) marks the signing of CITES; World Wetlands Day (2 February) the Ramsar Convention; the International Day for Biological Diversity (22 May) the adoption of the CBD text.

Recap

Treaty design: framework convention, then protocols; binding after ratification; a COP and a secretariat. Stockholm 1972 gave UNEP and World Environment Day; Rio 1992 gave the three Rio conventions.
CBD: adopted 22 May 1992 (Nairobi), opened at Rio, in force 29 December 1993; three objectives; sovereign rights (Article 15); secretariat Montreal; US not a party; India 1994, Biological Diversity Act 2002.
Cartagena Protocol (2000, in force 2003): living modified organisms, advance informed agreement, precaution, Biosafety Clearing-House; supplementary protocol on liability in force 2018.
Nagoya Protocol (2010, in force 2014): prior informed consent, mutually agreed terms, traditional knowledge; India ratified 2012 and hosted CBD COP11 at Hyderabad.
Aichi targets: 20 targets for 2011–2020, none fully met. Kunming-Montreal framework (COP15, Montreal, December 2022): 4 goals, 23 targets, 30 by 30. COP16 Cali (2024): Cali Fund.
CITES: signed Washington 3 March 1973, in force 1 July 1975; Appendices I, II, III; permits; India 1976; Schedule IV of the Wild Life (Protection) Act (2022 amendment).
CMS (Bonn, 1979, in force 1983): Appendices I and II; India party since 1983; COP13 Gandhinagar (2020) added the Great Indian Bustard, Asian elephant and Bengal florican to Appendix I.
Ramsar: 2 February 1971, in force 1975; not a UN treaty; three pillars; Montreux Record; India 1982. Whaling convention 1946, moratorium from 1986, Japan left 2019; World Heritage Convention 1972.

Practice questions

Q1. Consider the following statements about the Convention on Biological Diversity:
1. One of its objectives is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
2. It declares genetic resources to be the common heritage of mankind, free for all to collect.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1 only
2 only
Both 1 and 2
Neither 1 nor 2

Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct: benefit sharing is the third objective in Article 1. Statement 2 is wrong: Article 15 recognises the sovereign rights of states over their genetic resources, reversing the older 'common heritage' view. Option 2 picks the false statement, option 3 includes it, and option 4 rejects the true statement 1.

Q2. The Cartagena Protocol deals mainly with:

access to genetic resources and the sharing of benefits
the safe transboundary movement of living modified organisms
trade in endangered wild animals and plants
the movement of hazardous wastes across borders

Show answer

Answer: B. the safe transboundary movement of living modified organisms

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety governs living modified organisms through the advance informed agreement procedure. Access and benefit sharing is the Nagoya Protocol; trade in endangered species is CITES; hazardous waste movement is the Basel Convention.

Q3. With reference to the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, the target known as '30 by 30' refers to:

cutting harmful subsidies by 30 per cent by 2030
conserving at least 30 per cent of land and inland waters and 30 per cent of coastal and marine areas by 2030
planting 30 billion trees by 2030
reducing species extinction rates by 30 per cent by 2030

Show answer

Answer: B. conserving at least 30 per cent of land and inland waters and 30 per cent of coastal and marine areas by 2030

Target 3 of the framework (2022) is to conserve at least 30 per cent of land and inland waters and of coastal and marine areas by 2030. The subsidy target is a cut of at least 500 billion US dollars a year, not 30 per cent; there is no 30-billion-tree target; and the extinction goal is not framed as a 30 per cent cut.

Q4. Consider the following statements about CITES:
1. It regulates the hunting of wild animals within the territory of a party.
2. International trade in an Appendix I species requires both an export permit and an import permit.
3. A single party can list a species in Appendix III without a vote of the Conference of the Parties.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1 and 2 only
2 and 3 only
1 and 3 only
1, 2 and 3

Show answer

Answer: B. 2 and 3 only

Statements 2 and 3 are correct. Statement 1 is wrong: CITES deals only with international trade; hunting inside a country is a matter for national law such as India's Wild Life (Protection) Act. Options 1, 3 and 4 all include the false statement 1.

Q5. Consider the following pairs:
Treaty : Place where it was signed or adopted
1. Ramsar Convention : Iran
2. Convention on Migratory Species : Bonn
3. CITES : Geneva
How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

Only one
Only two
All three
None

Show answer

Answer: B. Only two

Pairs 1 and 2 are correct. Pair 3 is wrong: CITES was signed in Washington in 1973; Geneva is only where its secretariat sits. So 'only one' undercounts, 'all three' includes the wrong pair, and 'none' rejects two correct pairs.

Q6. The Montreux Record is associated with:

Ramsar sites whose ecological character has changed or is likely to change
species listed in Appendix I of CITES
World Heritage sites in danger
ozone-depleting substances phased out under the Montreal Protocol

Show answer

Answer: A. Ramsar sites whose ecological character has changed or is likely to change

The Montreux Record is the Ramsar Convention's register of listed wetlands under threat. CITES Appendix I is a species list, not a site record; endangered World Heritage sites go on UNESCO's List of World Heritage in Danger; and the similar-sounding Montreal Protocol deals with ozone, not wetlands.

Q7. Consider the following statements:
1. The Nagoya Protocol requires prior informed consent of the country providing genetic resources.
2. India hosted the eleventh Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity at Hyderabad.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1 only
2 only
Both 1 and 2
Neither 1 nor 2

Show answer

Answer: C. Both 1 and 2

Both statements are correct: prior informed consent and mutually agreed terms are the core of the Nagoya Protocol, and India hosted CBD COP11 at Hyderabad in 2012, the year it ratified the protocol. Options 1 and 2 each leave out a true statement, and option 4 rejects both.

Q8. Which of the following species were added to Appendix I of the Convention on Migratory Species at its COP13 held in Gandhinagar in 2020?
1. Great Indian Bustard
2. Asian elephant
3. Bengal florican
4. Snow leopard
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

1 and 2 only
1, 2 and 3 only
2, 3 and 4 only
1, 2, 3 and 4

Show answer

Answer: B. 1, 2 and 3 only

The Great Indian Bustard, the Asian elephant and the Bengal florican were added to Appendix I at Gandhinagar. The snow leopard was not among the species listed there, so options 3 and 4 are wrong, and option 1 leaves out the Bengal florican.

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Sources

Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992 (Articles 1, 6, 8, 9 and 15); Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 2000 (Articles 3, 7, 10 and 20) and the Nagoya–Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol, 2010; Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing, 2010 — https://www.cbd.int/convention/text
UN Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 5–16 June 1972, and UN General Assembly resolution 2997 (1972) establishing UNEP; UN Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, June 1992 — https://www.un.org/en/conferences/environment/stockholm1972
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change: India and the CBD (ratification 1994; Nagoya Protocol ratification 2012; COP11, Hyderabad, October 2012); Biological Diversity Act, 2002; National Biodiversity Authority — https://moef.gov.in
CBD COP decisions X/2 (Strategic Plan 2011–2020 and Aichi Biodiversity Targets, 2010), 15/4 (Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, 2022) and COP16 decision on digital sequence information (Cali Fund, 2024); Global Biodiversity Outlook 5 (2020) — https://www.cbd.int/gbf
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1973 (Articles II–V and XV); CITES secretariat, list of parties; Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2022 (Schedule IV) — https://cites.org/eng/disc/text.php
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, 1979 (Articles III–V); CMS COP13, Gandhinagar, February 2020, amendments to Appendix I; CMS memoranda of understanding signed by India — https://www.cms.int/en/convention-text
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, Ramsar, 1971 (Articles 2, 3 and 5); Ramsar secretariat material on wise use and the Montreux Record (Recommendation 4.8, 1990); India's accession (1 February 1982) — https://www.ramsar.org/about/the-convention-on-wetlands-and-its-mission
International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, 1946, and the International Whaling Commission's commercial whaling moratorium (1982, effective 1986); UNESCO Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1972 — https://iwc.int/convention