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Environmental laws and bodies: quick recap

தமிழில் விளக்கம்

Environmental laws and bodies · Quick recap · Fact-checked on · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

The whole chapter in one sitting: the constitutional base, the Water, Air and Environment (Protection) Acts, EIA and CRZ, the forest laws and the Forest Rights Act, the Biological Diversity Act, the National Green Tribunal and the principles built by the courts.

Each idea is explained first in Tamil (தமிழ்), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Tamil and revise it in English.

அடித்தளம் 1976 திருத்தம்: அரசு சூழலைக் காக்க வேண்டும், குடிமகன் இயற்கையைக் காக்க வேண்டும். நீர் மாநிலங்களின் விஷயம், அதனால் 1974 நீர்ச் சட்டம் மாநிலங்கள் கேட்ட பிறகு வந்தது; அதனால்தான் மாசுக் கட்டுப்பாட்டு வாரியம் உருவானது. 1981 காற்றுச் சட்டம் ஸ்டாக்ஹோம் மாநாட்டுக்காக வந்தது, பிறகு ஒலியும் சேர்ந்தது. தொழிற்சாலைக்கு இரண்டு அனுமதிகள்: கட்ட ஒன்று, இயக்க ஒன்று. (→ English: Article 48A; Article 51A(g); Article 252; Article 253; Pollution Control Board · हिन्दी: अनुच्छेद 48A; अनुच्छेद 51A(g); अनुच्छेद 252; अनुच्छेद 253; प्रदूषण नियंत्रण बोर्ड)

In exam EnglishIndia's environmental law starts from the 42nd Amendment of 1976, which added Article 48A (the State shall protect the environment, forests and wildlife) and Article 51A(g) (the citizen's duty to protect nature). Parliament's power to legislate came by two routes. Water is a State subject, so the Water Act, 1974 was passed under Article 252 after state legislatures asked for it; it created the Central and State Pollution Control Boards and made discharges depend on their consent. The Air Act, 1981 used Article 253 to carry out the decisions of the Stockholm Conference of 1972, gave the same boards new duties and, from 1987, covered noise. Industries now need consent to establish and consent to operate, and are sorted into red, orange, green and white categories.

1986 சட்டம் ஒரு குடை போல: மத்திய அரசு தரநிலை வைக்கலாம், ஆணையிடலாம், தொழிற்சாலையை மூடலாம். குடிமகன் 60 நாள் அறிவிப்புக்குப் பிறகு நீதிமன்றம் போகலாம். பெரிய திட்டம் கட்டும் முன் சுற்றுச்சூழல் தாக்க மதிப்பீடு கட்டாயம்: பெரியவை மத்திய அரசிடம், சிறியவை மாநிலத்திடம்; ஊர் மக்களின் கருத்தும் கேட்கப்படும். கடற்கரைக் கட்டடங்களுக்குக் கடலோர விதிகள் உண்டு. (→ English: Environment (Protection) Act, 1986; environment impact assessment; Coastal Regulation Zone · हिन्दी: पर्यावरण (संरक्षण) अधिनियम, 1986; पर्यावरण प्रभाव आकलन; तटीय विनियमन क्षेत्र)

In exam EnglishAfter the Bhopal gas leak of 1984, the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 gave the Union government wide umbrella powers: to set standards, restrict industries in chosen areas, issue binding directions and even close a unit; Section 19 lets a citizen complain to a court after 60 days' notice. Much of the field's detail hangs from this Act: the waste rules, the Noise Rules of 2000 and eco-sensitive zones. The environment impact assessment Notification of 2006 makes listed projects obtain prior clearance: Category A from the Union ministry on the advice of an Expert Appraisal Committee, Category B from a state authority, after screening, scoping, public consultation and appraisal. The Coastal Regulation Zone notifications of 1991, 2011 and 2019 control building along the coast, measured from the high tide line.

வனச் சட்டங்கள் மூன்று அடுக்குகள். 1927 சட்டம் காடுகளை வகைப்படுத்துகிறது; காட்டுக்கு வெளியே வளர்த்த மூங்கில் இப்போது மரம் அல்ல. 1988 கொள்கையின் இலக்கு: நாட்டில் மூன்றில் ஒரு பங்கு காடு. வன நிலத்தை வேறு வேலைக்குப் பயன்படுத்த மத்திய அனுமதி வேண்டும். நீதிமன்றப்படி மரம் நிறைந்த நிலம் எல்லாம் காடே, யாருடையதாயினும். எடுத்த காட்டுக்கு ஈடாக ஈடுசெய் காடு வளர்ப்பு செய்ய வேண்டும், ஒன்றை எடுத்தால் இன்னொன்றை நடுவது போல. (→ English: Indian Forest Act, 1927; National Forest Policy, 1988; Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980; compensatory afforestation · हिन्दी: भारतीय वन अधिनियम, 1927; राष्ट्रीय वन नीति, 1988; वन (संरक्षण) अधिनियम, 1980; प्रतिकरात्मक वनरोपण)

In exam EnglishForest law has three layers. The Indian Forest Act, 1927 sorts forests into reserved, protected and village forests; since 2017 bamboo grown outside forests is no longer treated as a tree. The National Forest Policy, 1988 set the goal of one-third of the country (two-thirds of the hills) under forest or tree cover, and the India State of Forest Report 2023 put forest and tree cover at 25.17 per cent. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 requires the Centre's prior approval before forest land is diverted. In Godavarman (1996) the Supreme Court read 'forest' in its dictionary sense, whoever owns the land; the 2023 amendment renamed the Act and narrowed its coverage, but a 2024 interim order kept the wide meaning in place. Land diverted must be made good through compensatory afforestation, whose money sits in funds under the CAF Act, 2016.

காட்டில் தலைமுறைகளாக வாழ்ந்தும் ஆவணம் இல்லாத குடும்பங்களுக்கு நீதி செய்யவே வன உரிமைச் சட்டம். பழங்குடியினர் 13 டிசம்பர் 2005-க்கு முன் அங்கே இருக்க வேண்டும்; மற்றவர்கள் 75 ஆண்டுகள் காட்ட வேண்டும். சாகுபடி நிலம் 4 ஹெக்டேர் வரை, ஊர்க் காட்டின் மீது கூட்டு உரிமை. தொடங்குவது கிராம சபை, இறுதி முடிவு மாவட்டக் குழு. நியமகிரியில் பன்னிரண்டு கிராம சபைகளும் சுரங்கத்தை மறுத்தன. (→ English: Forest Rights Act; Gram Sabha; District Level Committee; community forest resource · हिन्दी: वन अधिकार अधिनियम; ग्राम सभा; ज़िला स्तरीय समिति; सामुदायिक वन संसाधन)

In exam EnglishThe Forest Rights Act of 2006 corrected what its preamble calls a historical injustice to forest dwellers whose rights were never recorded. Scheduled Tribes living in forests qualify if they were there before 13 December 2005; other traditional forest dwellers must show three generations, counted as 75 years, of residence before that date. The Act recognises individual rights to land under cultivation (up to 4 hectares) and community rights, including minor forest produce and the right to protect and manage a community forest resource. The Gram Sabha begins the process; sub-divisional and district committees examine claims, and the District Level Committee decides. The nodal ministry is Tribal Affairs. In the Niyamgiri case (2013) the Supreme Court left the decision on bauxite mining to the gram sabhas, and all twelve consulted rejected it.

பல்லுயிர்ச் சட்டத்தில் மூன்று அடுக்குகள்: சென்னையில் தேசிய பல்லுயிர் ஆணையம், மாநில வாரியம், ஊர்க் குழு. வெளிநாட்டவருக்கு முன் அனுமதி, நம்மவருக்கு முன் தகவல், ஊர் வைத்தியருக்கு விலக்கு. தேசிய பசுமைத் தீர்ப்பாயம் ஏழு சட்டங்களின் வழக்குகளைக் கேட்கும்; வனவிலங்கு, வனச் சட்டங்கள் அதில் இல்லை. மேல்முறையீடு 90 நாளில் உச்ச நீதிமன்றத்துக்கு. (→ English: National Biodiversity Authority; Biodiversity Management Committee; National Green Tribunal · हिन्दी: राष्ट्रीय जैव विविधता प्राधिकरण; जैव विविधता प्रबंधन समिति; राष्ट्रीय हरित अधिकरण)

In exam EnglishThe Biological Diversity Act, 2002 gives effect to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Its three tiers are the National Biodiversity Authority at Chennai, a State Biodiversity Board in each state, and a Biodiversity Management Committee in each local body, which keeps the People's Biodiversity Register. Foreigners need the NBA's prior approval to obtain Indian biological resources or related knowledge; Indians only give prior intimation to the state board, and local people, vaids and hakims are exempt. The 2023 amendment eased compliance and replaced jail terms with fines. The National Green Tribunal, set up on 18 October 2010 with its principal bench in New Delhi, hears environmental cases under seven Acts; the Wild Life Act, the Indian Forest Act and the Forest Rights Act are not among them. Appeals go to the Supreme Court within 90 days.

சட்டங்களின் இடைவெளிகளை நீதிமன்றங்கள் நிரப்பின. முழுமையான பொறுப்பு: ஆபத்தான தொழிற்சாலைக்கு எந்தச் சாக்கும் இல்லை. மாசுபடுத்துபவர் செலுத்தும் கொள்கை: கறை செய்தவரே துடைக்க வேண்டும். முன்னெச்சரிக்கைக் கொள்கை: 'பாதுகாப்பானது' என்று நிரூபிக்க வேண்டியது திட்டக்காரரே. பொது நம்பிக்கைக் கோட்பாடு: ஆறு, காடு, காற்று மக்களுடையவை; அரசு காவலர் மட்டுமே. (→ English: absolute liability; polluter pays principle; precautionary principle; public trust doctrine · हिन्दी: पूर्ण दायित्व; प्रदूषक भुगतान सिद्धांत; एहतियाती सिद्धांत; लोक न्यास सिद्धांत)

In exam EnglishThe courts filled the gaps the statutes left by reading a healthy environment into Article 21; in Subhash Kumar (1991) the right to life was held to include pollution-free water and air. Four principles followed. absolute liability (Oleum gas, 1987) makes a hazardous enterprise pay for any harm with no defence. The polluter pays principle (Bichhri, 1996) makes the polluter bear compensation and the cost of repair. The precautionary principle (Vellore, 1996) asks for action before scientific certainty and puts the burden of proof on the developer. The public trust doctrine (Kamal Nath, 1997) treats rivers, forests and the air as held in trust for the public. The NGT Act now obliges the tribunal to apply precaution, polluter pays and sustainable development. Read together, the chapter moves from constitutional duty to sector laws and regulators, and finally to principles that bind them all.
Environmental laws and bodies at a glance
LawConstitutional route or baseBodyMost-asked point
Water Act, 1974Article 252Central and State Pollution Control BoardsCreated the boards
Air Act, 1981Article 253 (Stockholm, 1972)Same boardsNoise added in 1987
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986Article 253Central governmentUmbrella Act; Section 19, 60 days' notice
Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980Concurrent List (forests, 1976)Central government; Forest Advisory CommitteePrior central approval; Godavarman (1996)
Forest Rights Act, 2006Rights of forest dwellersGram Sabha; District Level Committee13 December 2005 cut-off; 75 years; 4 ha
Biological Diversity Act, 2002Convention on Biological DiversityNBA (Chennai); State Boards; BMCsForeigners need NBA approval
National Green Tribunal Act, 2010Article 21 and access to justiceNGT (New Delhi, four zonal benches)Seven Acts; appeal to Supreme Court in 90 days

Exam traps

Recap

Practice questions

Q1. Under which Article of the Constitution did Parliament enact the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981?

  1. Article 249
  2. Article 252
  3. Article 253
  4. Article 262
Show answer

Answer: C. Article 253

The Air Act gave effect to the decisions of the Stockholm Conference of 1972, so it rests on Article 253. Article 249 needs a Rajya Sabha resolution and was not used; Article 252 was the route for the Water Act; Article 262 deals with inter-state river disputes.

Q2. Consider the following statements:
1. The Central Pollution Control Board was created under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
2. Under Section 19 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, a citizen may complain to a court after giving 60 days' notice.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: B. 2 only

Statement 2 is correct. Statement 1 is wrong: the CPCB was created by the Water Act, 1974. Options 1 and 3 include statement 1 and fail; option 4 fails because statement 2 is true.

Q3. Under the EIA Notification, 2006, the public hearing for a project is conducted by:

  1. The project proponent
  2. The State Pollution Control Board
  3. The Expert Appraisal Committee
  4. The National Green Tribunal
Show answer

Answer: B. The State Pollution Control Board

The State Pollution Control Board (or the Pollution Control Committee in a Union territory) holds the hearing. The proponent prepares the report but does not run the hearing; the Expert Appraisal Committee appraises Category A projects afterwards; the NGT hears appeals and does not conduct hearings.

Q4. The goal of keeping two-thirds of the area in the hills under forest or tree cover is found in:

  1. The Indian Forest Act, 1927
  2. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
  3. The National Forest Policy, 1988
  4. The Forest Rights Act, 2006
Show answer

Answer: C. The National Forest Policy, 1988

The National Forest Policy, 1988 sets one-third overall and two-thirds in the hills. The 1927 Act classifies forests, the 1980 Act controls diversion, and the 2006 Act recognises rights; none sets a cover target.

Q5. Consider the following statements about the Forest Rights Act, 2006:
1. Other traditional forest dwellers must show residence for three generations (75 years) before 13 December 2005.
2. The Gram Sabha takes the final decision on claims.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is wrong: the Gram Sabha starts the process, but the District Level Committee decides. So options 2 and 3 fail, and option 4 fails because statement 1 is true.

Q6. Which one of the following Acts falls within the jurisdiction of the National Green Tribunal?

  1. The Indian Forest Act, 1927
  2. The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972
  3. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002
  4. The Forest Rights Act, 2006
Show answer

Answer: C. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002

The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 is one of the seven Acts in Schedule I. The Indian Forest Act, the Wild Life (Protection) Act and the Forest Rights Act are all outside that list.

Q7. Which one of the following is NOT required to obtain the prior approval of the National Biodiversity Authority before obtaining a biological resource occurring in India?

  1. A foreign national
  2. A non-resident Indian
  3. A foreign-controlled company
  4. An Indian citizen
Show answer

Answer: D. An Indian citizen

An Indian citizen only gives prior intimation to the State Biodiversity Board for commercial use. Foreign nationals, non-resident Indians and foreign-controlled companies all need the NBA's prior approval, so the first three options are wrong.

Q8. The principle that the burden of proving an activity is environmentally harmless lies on the person who wants to carry it out was declared part of the law of the land in:

  1. M. C. Mehta v. Union of India (1987)
  2. Vellore Citizens' Welfare Forum v. Union of India (1996)
  3. M. C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath (1997)
  4. Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar (1991)
Show answer

Answer: B. Vellore Citizens' Welfare Forum v. Union of India (1996)

The shifted burden of proof is part of the precautionary principle, declared law of the land in Vellore (1996). The 1987 Oleum gas case gave absolute liability, Kamal Nath (1997) the public trust doctrine, and Subhash Kumar (1991) the right to pollution-free water and air.

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