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Environmental laws and bodies: quick recap

ಕನ್ನಡದಲ್ಲಿ ವಿವರಣೆ

Environmental laws and bodies · Quick recap · Fact-checked on · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

The whole chapter in one sitting: the constitutional base, the Water, Air and Environment (Protection) Acts, EIA and CRZ, the forest laws and the Forest Rights Act, the Biological Diversity Act, the National Green Tribunal and the principles built by the courts.

Each idea is explained first in Kannada (ಕನ್ನಡ), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Kannada and revise it in English.

ಅಡಿಪಾಯ 1976ರ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ: ಸರ್ಕಾರ ಪರಿಸರ ಕಾಪಾಡಬೇಕು, ನಾಗರಿಕ ಪ್ರಕೃತಿ ಕಾಪಾಡಬೇಕು. ನೀರು ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳ ವಿಷಯ, ಆದ್ದರಿಂದ 1974ರ ಜಲ ಕಾನೂನು ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳು ಕೇಳಿದ ನಂತರ ಬಂತು; ಅದರಿಂದಲೇ ಮಾಲಿನ್ಯ ನಿಯಂತ್ರಣ ಮಂಡಳಿ ಬಂತು. 1981ರ ವಾಯು ಕಾನೂನು ಸ್ಟಾಕ್‌ಹೋಮ್ ಸಮ್ಮೇಳನಕ್ಕಾಗಿ ಬಂತು, ನಂತರ ಶಬ್ದವೂ ಸೇರಿತು. ಕಾರ್ಖಾನೆಗೆ ಎರಡು ಅನುಮತಿ: ಕಟ್ಟಲು ಒಂದು, ನಡೆಸಲು ಒಂದು. (→ English: Article 48A; Article 51A(g); Article 252; Article 253; Pollution Control Board · हिन्दी: अनुच्छेद 48A; अनुच्छेद 51A(g); अनुच्छेद 252; अनुच्छेद 253; प्रदूषण नियंत्रण बोर्ड)

In exam EnglishIndia's environmental law starts from the 42nd Amendment of 1976, which added Article 48A (the State shall protect the environment, forests and wildlife) and Article 51A(g) (the citizen's duty to protect nature). Parliament's power to legislate came by two routes. Water is a State subject, so the Water Act, 1974 was passed under Article 252 after state legislatures asked for it; it created the Central and State Pollution Control Boards and made discharges depend on their consent. The Air Act, 1981 used Article 253 to carry out the decisions of the Stockholm Conference of 1972, gave the same boards new duties and, from 1987, covered noise. Industries now need consent to establish and consent to operate, and are sorted into red, orange, green and white categories.

1986ರ ಕಾನೂನು ಒಂದು ಕೊಡೆಯಂತೆ: ಕೇಂದ್ರ ಮಾನದಂಡ ಇಡಬಹುದು, ಆದೇಶ ನೀಡಬಹುದು, ಕಾರ್ಖಾನೆ ಮುಚ್ಚಿಸಬಹುದು. ನಾಗರಿಕ 60 ದಿನದ ನೋಟಿಸ್ ನಂತರ ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯಕ್ಕೆ ಹೋಗಬಹುದು. ದೊಡ್ಡ ಯೋಜನೆ ಕಟ್ಟುವ ಮುನ್ನ ಪರಿಸರ ಪ್ರಭಾವ ಮೌಲ್ಯಮಾಪನ ಕಡ್ಡಾಯ: ದೊಡ್ಡವು ಕೇಂದ್ರದಲ್ಲಿ, ಸಣ್ಣವು ರಾಜ್ಯದಲ್ಲಿ; ಊರಿನವರ ಅಭಿಪ್ರಾಯವೂ ಕೇಳುತ್ತಾರೆ. ಕಡಲತೀರದ ಕಟ್ಟಡಗಳಿಗೆ ಕರಾವಳಿ ನಿಯಮಗಳಿವೆ. (→ English: Environment (Protection) Act, 1986; environment impact assessment; Coastal Regulation Zone · हिन्दी: पर्यावरण (संरक्षण) अधिनियम, 1986; पर्यावरण प्रभाव आकलन; तटीय विनियमन क्षेत्र)

In exam EnglishAfter the Bhopal gas leak of 1984, the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 gave the Union government wide umbrella powers: to set standards, restrict industries in chosen areas, issue binding directions and even close a unit; Section 19 lets a citizen complain to a court after 60 days' notice. Much of the field's detail hangs from this Act: the waste rules, the Noise Rules of 2000 and eco-sensitive zones. The environment impact assessment Notification of 2006 makes listed projects obtain prior clearance: Category A from the Union ministry on the advice of an Expert Appraisal Committee, Category B from a state authority, after screening, scoping, public consultation and appraisal. The Coastal Regulation Zone notifications of 1991, 2011 and 2019 control building along the coast, measured from the high tide line.

ಅರಣ್ಯ ಕಾನೂನುಗಳ ಮೂರು ಪದರ. 1927ರ ಕಾನೂನು ಕಾಡುಗಳನ್ನು ವಿಂಗಡಿಸುತ್ತದೆ; ಕಾಡಿನ ಹೊರಗೆ ಬೆಳೆಸಿದ ಬಿದಿರು ಈಗ ಮರವಲ್ಲ. 1988ರ ನೀತಿಯ ಗುರಿ: ದೇಶದ ಮೂರನೇ ಒಂದು ಭಾಗ ಕಾಡು. ಅರಣ್ಯ ಭೂಮಿಯನ್ನು ಬೇರೆ ಕೆಲಸಕ್ಕೆ ಬಳಸಲು ಕೇಂದ್ರದ ಅನುಮತಿ ಬೇಕು. ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯದ ಪ್ರಕಾರ ಮರ ತುಂಬಿದ ಭೂಮಿ ಎಲ್ಲವೂ ಕಾಡೇ, ಯಾರದ್ದಾದರೂ. ತೆಗೆದ ಕಾಡಿಗೆ ಬದಲಾಗಿ ಪರಿಹಾರಾತ್ಮಕ ಅರಣ್ಯೀಕರಣ ಮಾಡಬೇಕು, ಒಂದು ತೆಗೆದರೆ ಇನ್ನೊಂದು ನೆಟ್ಟಂತೆ. (→ English: Indian Forest Act, 1927; National Forest Policy, 1988; Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980; compensatory afforestation · हिन्दी: भारतीय वन अधिनियम, 1927; राष्ट्रीय वन नीति, 1988; वन (संरक्षण) अधिनियम, 1980; प्रतिकरात्मक वनरोपण)

In exam EnglishForest law has three layers. The Indian Forest Act, 1927 sorts forests into reserved, protected and village forests; since 2017 bamboo grown outside forests is no longer treated as a tree. The National Forest Policy, 1988 set the goal of one-third of the country (two-thirds of the hills) under forest or tree cover, and the India State of Forest Report 2023 put forest and tree cover at 25.17 per cent. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 requires the Centre's prior approval before forest land is diverted. In Godavarman (1996) the Supreme Court read 'forest' in its dictionary sense, whoever owns the land; the 2023 amendment renamed the Act and narrowed its coverage, but a 2024 interim order kept the wide meaning in place. Land diverted must be made good through compensatory afforestation, whose money sits in funds under the CAF Act, 2016.

ಕಾಡಿನಲ್ಲಿ ತಲೆಮಾರುಗಳಿಂದ ಇದ್ದರೂ ದಾಖಲೆ ಇಲ್ಲದ ಕುಟುಂಬಗಳಿಗೆ ನ್ಯಾಯ ನೀಡಲೆಂದೇ ಅರಣ್ಯ ಹಕ್ಕು ಕಾಯ್ದೆ. ಬುಡಕಟ್ಟು ಜನರು 13 ಡಿಸೆಂಬರ್ 2005ಕ್ಕೆ ಮುಂಚೆ ಅಲ್ಲಿರಬೇಕು; ಇತರರು 75 ವರ್ಷ ತೋರಿಸಬೇಕು. ಸಾಗುವಳಿ ಭೂಮಿ 4 ಹೆಕ್ಟೇರ್‌ವರೆಗೆ, ಊರ ಕಾಡಿನ ಮೇಲೆ ಸಾಮೂಹಿಕ ಹಕ್ಕು. ಆರಂಭಿಸುವುದು ಗ್ರಾಮಸಭೆ, ಅಂತಿಮ ತೀರ್ಮಾನ ಜಿಲ್ಲಾ ಸಮಿತಿ. ನಿಯಮಗಿರಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಹನ್ನೆರಡೂ ಗ್ರಾಮಸಭೆಗಳು ಗಣಿ ಬೇಡ ಎಂದವು. (→ English: Forest Rights Act; Gram Sabha; District Level Committee; community forest resource · हिन्दी: वन अधिकार अधिनियम; ग्राम सभा; ज़िला स्तरीय समिति; सामुदायिक वन संसाधन)

In exam EnglishThe Forest Rights Act of 2006 corrected what its preamble calls a historical injustice to forest dwellers whose rights were never recorded. Scheduled Tribes living in forests qualify if they were there before 13 December 2005; other traditional forest dwellers must show three generations, counted as 75 years, of residence before that date. The Act recognises individual rights to land under cultivation (up to 4 hectares) and community rights, including minor forest produce and the right to protect and manage a community forest resource. The Gram Sabha begins the process; sub-divisional and district committees examine claims, and the District Level Committee decides. The nodal ministry is Tribal Affairs. In the Niyamgiri case (2013) the Supreme Court left the decision on bauxite mining to the gram sabhas, and all twelve consulted rejected it.

ಜೀವವೈವಿಧ್ಯ ಕಾನೂನಿನಲ್ಲಿ ಮೂರು ಹಂತ: ಚೆನ್ನೈನಲ್ಲಿ ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಜೀವವೈವಿಧ್ಯ ಪ್ರಾಧಿಕಾರ, ರಾಜ್ಯ ಮಂಡಳಿ, ಊರ ಸಮಿತಿ. ವಿದೇಶೀಯರಿಗೆ ಮುಂಚಿತ ಅನುಮತಿ, ನಮ್ಮವರಿಗೆ ಮುಂಚಿತ ಮಾಹಿತಿ, ಊರ ವೈದ್ಯರಿಗೆ ವಿನಾಯಿತಿ. ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಹಸಿರು ನ್ಯಾಯಮಂಡಳಿ ಏಳು ಕಾನೂನುಗಳ ಪ್ರಕರಣ ಕೇಳುತ್ತದೆ; ವನ್ಯಜೀವಿ, ಅರಣ್ಯ ಕಾನೂನುಗಳು ಅದರಲ್ಲಿಲ್ಲ. ಮೇಲ್ಮನವಿ 90 ದಿನದೊಳಗೆ ಸುಪ್ರೀಂ ಕೋರ್ಟ್‌ಗೆ. (→ English: National Biodiversity Authority; Biodiversity Management Committee; National Green Tribunal · हिन्दी: राष्ट्रीय जैव विविधता प्राधिकरण; जैव विविधता प्रबंधन समिति; राष्ट्रीय हरित अधिकरण)

In exam EnglishThe Biological Diversity Act, 2002 gives effect to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Its three tiers are the National Biodiversity Authority at Chennai, a State Biodiversity Board in each state, and a Biodiversity Management Committee in each local body, which keeps the People's Biodiversity Register. Foreigners need the NBA's prior approval to obtain Indian biological resources or related knowledge; Indians only give prior intimation to the state board, and local people, vaids and hakims are exempt. The 2023 amendment eased compliance and replaced jail terms with fines. The National Green Tribunal, set up on 18 October 2010 with its principal bench in New Delhi, hears environmental cases under seven Acts; the Wild Life Act, the Indian Forest Act and the Forest Rights Act are not among them. Appeals go to the Supreme Court within 90 days.

ಕಾನೂನುಗಳ ಖಾಲಿ ಜಾಗಗಳನ್ನು ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯಗಳು ತುಂಬಿದವು. ಸಂಪೂರ್ಣ ಹೊಣೆಗಾರಿಕೆ: ಅಪಾಯಕಾರಿ ಕಾರ್ಖಾನೆಗೆ ಯಾವ ನೆಪವೂ ಇಲ್ಲ. ಮಾಲಿನ್ಯಕಾರ ಪಾವತಿ ತತ್ವ: ಕಲೆ ಮಾಡಿದವನೇ ಒರೆಸಬೇಕು. ಮುನ್ನೆಚ್ಚರಿಕೆ ತತ್ವ: 'ಸುರಕ್ಷಿತ' ಎಂದು ಸಾಬೀತು ಮಾಡಬೇಕಾದವರು ಯೋಜನೆಯವರೇ. ಸಾರ್ವಜನಿಕ ಟ್ರಸ್ಟ್ ಸಿದ್ಧಾಂತ: ನದಿ, ಕಾಡು, ಗಾಳಿ ಜನರದು; ಸರ್ಕಾರ ಕಾವಲುಗಾರ ಮಾತ್ರ. (→ English: absolute liability; polluter pays principle; precautionary principle; public trust doctrine · हिन्दी: पूर्ण दायित्व; प्रदूषक भुगतान सिद्धांत; एहतियाती सिद्धांत; लोक न्यास सिद्धांत)

In exam EnglishThe courts filled the gaps the statutes left by reading a healthy environment into Article 21; in Subhash Kumar (1991) the right to life was held to include pollution-free water and air. Four principles followed. absolute liability (Oleum gas, 1987) makes a hazardous enterprise pay for any harm with no defence. The polluter pays principle (Bichhri, 1996) makes the polluter bear compensation and the cost of repair. The precautionary principle (Vellore, 1996) asks for action before scientific certainty and puts the burden of proof on the developer. The public trust doctrine (Kamal Nath, 1997) treats rivers, forests and the air as held in trust for the public. The NGT Act now obliges the tribunal to apply precaution, polluter pays and sustainable development. Read together, the chapter moves from constitutional duty to sector laws and regulators, and finally to principles that bind them all.
Environmental laws and bodies at a glance
LawConstitutional route or baseBodyMost-asked point
Water Act, 1974Article 252Central and State Pollution Control BoardsCreated the boards
Air Act, 1981Article 253 (Stockholm, 1972)Same boardsNoise added in 1987
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986Article 253Central governmentUmbrella Act; Section 19, 60 days' notice
Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980Concurrent List (forests, 1976)Central government; Forest Advisory CommitteePrior central approval; Godavarman (1996)
Forest Rights Act, 2006Rights of forest dwellersGram Sabha; District Level Committee13 December 2005 cut-off; 75 years; 4 ha
Biological Diversity Act, 2002Convention on Biological DiversityNBA (Chennai); State Boards; BMCsForeigners need NBA approval
National Green Tribunal Act, 2010Article 21 and access to justiceNGT (New Delhi, four zonal benches)Seven Acts; appeal to Supreme Court in 90 days

Exam traps

Recap

Practice questions

Q1. Under which Article of the Constitution did Parliament enact the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981?

  1. Article 249
  2. Article 252
  3. Article 253
  4. Article 262
Show answer

Answer: C. Article 253

The Air Act gave effect to the decisions of the Stockholm Conference of 1972, so it rests on Article 253. Article 249 needs a Rajya Sabha resolution and was not used; Article 252 was the route for the Water Act; Article 262 deals with inter-state river disputes.

Q2. Consider the following statements:
1. The Central Pollution Control Board was created under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
2. Under Section 19 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, a citizen may complain to a court after giving 60 days' notice.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: B. 2 only

Statement 2 is correct. Statement 1 is wrong: the CPCB was created by the Water Act, 1974. Options 1 and 3 include statement 1 and fail; option 4 fails because statement 2 is true.

Q3. Under the EIA Notification, 2006, the public hearing for a project is conducted by:

  1. The project proponent
  2. The State Pollution Control Board
  3. The Expert Appraisal Committee
  4. The National Green Tribunal
Show answer

Answer: B. The State Pollution Control Board

The State Pollution Control Board (or the Pollution Control Committee in a Union territory) holds the hearing. The proponent prepares the report but does not run the hearing; the Expert Appraisal Committee appraises Category A projects afterwards; the NGT hears appeals and does not conduct hearings.

Q4. The goal of keeping two-thirds of the area in the hills under forest or tree cover is found in:

  1. The Indian Forest Act, 1927
  2. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
  3. The National Forest Policy, 1988
  4. The Forest Rights Act, 2006
Show answer

Answer: C. The National Forest Policy, 1988

The National Forest Policy, 1988 sets one-third overall and two-thirds in the hills. The 1927 Act classifies forests, the 1980 Act controls diversion, and the 2006 Act recognises rights; none sets a cover target.

Q5. Consider the following statements about the Forest Rights Act, 2006:
1. Other traditional forest dwellers must show residence for three generations (75 years) before 13 December 2005.
2. The Gram Sabha takes the final decision on claims.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is wrong: the Gram Sabha starts the process, but the District Level Committee decides. So options 2 and 3 fail, and option 4 fails because statement 1 is true.

Q6. Which one of the following Acts falls within the jurisdiction of the National Green Tribunal?

  1. The Indian Forest Act, 1927
  2. The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972
  3. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002
  4. The Forest Rights Act, 2006
Show answer

Answer: C. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002

The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 is one of the seven Acts in Schedule I. The Indian Forest Act, the Wild Life (Protection) Act and the Forest Rights Act are all outside that list.

Q7. Which one of the following is NOT required to obtain the prior approval of the National Biodiversity Authority before obtaining a biological resource occurring in India?

  1. A foreign national
  2. A non-resident Indian
  3. A foreign-controlled company
  4. An Indian citizen
Show answer

Answer: D. An Indian citizen

An Indian citizen only gives prior intimation to the State Biodiversity Board for commercial use. Foreign nationals, non-resident Indians and foreign-controlled companies all need the NBA's prior approval, so the first three options are wrong.

Q8. The principle that the burden of proving an activity is environmentally harmless lies on the person who wants to carry it out was declared part of the law of the land in:

  1. M. C. Mehta v. Union of India (1987)
  2. Vellore Citizens' Welfare Forum v. Union of India (1996)
  3. M. C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath (1997)
  4. Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar (1991)
Show answer

Answer: B. Vellore Citizens' Welfare Forum v. Union of India (1996)

The shifted burden of proof is part of the precautionary principle, declared law of the land in Vellore (1996). The 1987 Oleum gas case gave absolute liability, Kamal Nath (1997) the public trust doctrine, and Subhash Kumar (1991) the right to pollution-free water and air.

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