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The Later Vedic period

मराठीत स्पष्टीकरण

The Vedic age · Part 2 / 2 · Fact-checked on · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

The Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads and Vedangas; the move east into the Ganga-Yamuna doab and Videha; Painted Grey Ware and iron; janapadas, kings and the rajasuya, ashvamedha and vajapeya; ratnins and weaker assemblies; plough farming and rice; varna by birth, gotra and the three debts; the ashramas and women; Prajapati, priestly ritual and Upanishadic ideas; and how the Early and Later Vedic periods and the Harappan world compare.

Each idea is explained first in Marathi (मराठी), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Marathi and revise it in English.

सुमारे इ.स.पू. 1000 ते 600 या काळाला उत्तर वैदिक काळ म्हणतात. सात नद्यांच्या प्रदेशात गुरे चारणाऱ्या लहान टोळ्या आता पूर्वेकडे गंगेच्या मैदानात जातात, लोखंड वापरतात, जंगल तोडून भात पिकवतात आणि एका जागी स्थिर होतात. गावोगाव फिरणाऱ्या गुराख्याच्या कुटुंबाने एक शेत घेऊन घर बांधावे तसे समजा. टोळीचा प्रमुख राजा होतो; समाज वर्ण नावाच्या कडक व्यवस्थेत बांधला जातो. रंगीत धूसर मृद्भांडी या भांड्यांवरूनही हा काळ कळतो. (→ English: Later Vedic period · varna · Painted Grey Ware · हिन्दी: उत्तर वैदिक काल · वर्ण · चित्रित धूसर मृद्भांड)

In exam EnglishAround 1000 BCE the Vedic world begins to change so much that historians treat the next four centuries, roughly 1000 to 600 BCE, as a separate stage: the Later Vedic period. Part 1 described small cattle-keeping tribes in the land of the seven rivers. In this part those people move east into the Ganga plain, take up iron, clear forest, grow rice and settle in villages that stay put. Tribes turn into territories, chiefs into kings who perform grand sacrifices, and the loose social groups of the Rig Veda harden into the varna order. Archaeology now adds a pottery tradition, Painted Grey Ware, that matches the area the texts describe. The part ends by comparing the two Vedic stages and the Vedic world with the Harappan one.

या काळात उरलेले तीन वेद आले; प्रत्येकाचे यज्ञात वेगळे काम. सामवेद हे गाण्याचे पुस्तक — ऋग्वेदातील मंत्रांनाच चाल लावली; लग्नात भटजी मंत्र म्हणत असताना शेजारी कोणी गात असावे तसे. यजुर्वेदात यज्ञ करताना म्हणायची वाक्ये; शुक्ल यजुर्वेद ती स्पष्टीकरणापासून वेगळी ठेवतो, कृष्ण यजुर्वेद एकत्र मिसळतो. अथर्ववेद वेगळा: ताप, साप, शत्रू यांपासून रक्षणाचे मंत्र, चांगल्या पिकासाठी प्रार्थना — सामान्य घरातील श्रद्धा. (→ English: Sama Veda · Yajur Veda · Atharva Veda · हिन्दी: सामवेद · यजुर्वेद · अथर्ववेद)

In exam EnglishThree more Vedas belong to this period, and each served a different job at the sacrifice. The Sama Veda is a book of chants: almost all its verses are taken from the Rig Veda and set to melody for the singing priest. The Yajur Veda holds the formulas spoken while the ritual is actually performed. It comes in two branches: the Shukla or White Yajur Veda keeps the formulas apart from their explanation, while the Krishna or Black Yajur Veda mixes the two. The Atharva Veda is different in spirit. It is full of charms and spells against illness, snakes, enemies and bad luck, and prayers for love, harvest and long life, so it shows the beliefs of ordinary households rather than only priestly ritual.

प्रत्येक वेदाभोवती गद्याचे थर वाढले — एखाद्या पाठ्यपुस्तकाला गाइड, मग नोट्स आणि शेवटी सार यावे तसे. ब्राह्मण ग्रंथ यज्ञ कसा आणि का करायचा ते सांगतात; आरण्यके जंगलात शांतपणे वाचली जात; शेवटचा थर उपनिषद — इथे तत्त्वज्ञान सुरू होते, म्हणून 'वेदांत'. आपले राष्ट्रीय ब्रीदवाक्य 'सत्यमेव जयते' मुण्डक उपनिषदातून आले. वेद शिकण्यासाठी मदत म्हणून सहा वेदांगे — उच्चार, कर्मनियम, व्याकरण, शब्दार्थ, छंद, ज्योतिष. (→ English: Brahmanas · Aranyakas · Upanishad · Vedangas · हिन्दी: ब्राह्मण · आरण्यक · उपनिषद · वेदांग)

In exam EnglishAround each Veda grew layers of prose. The Brahmanas explain the meaning and correct steps of each ritual and tell the stories behind them; the Aitareya Brahmana is attached to the Rig Veda and the long Shatapatha Brahmana to the White Yajur Veda. The Aranyakas, 'forest books', were studied in the quiet of the forest and move from ritual towards reflection. The last layer, the Upanishad texts, turns to philosophy, which is why they are called Vedanta, 'the end of the Veda'. India's national motto, Satyameva Jayate, comes from the Mundaka Upanishad. Later came six Vedangas, aids for studying the Vedas: Shiksha (phonetics), Kalpa (ritual rules), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (meaning of words), Chhandas (metre) and Jyotisha (astronomy and the calendar). Traditions also name Upavedas on practical arts such as medicine (Ayurveda), war (Dhanurveda) and music (Gandharvaveda).
Layers of Vedic literature
LayerNatureExample
SamhitaHymns, chants and formulasRig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva
BrahmanaProse on ritual and its meaningAitareya, Shatapatha
AranyakaForest texts; ritual to reflectionStudied in the forest
UpanishadPhilosophy: atman, brahman, karmaBrihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Mundaka
VedangaSix aids to Vedic studyShiksha to Jyotisha

आता वैदिक जीवनाचे केंद्र पंजाबमधून गंगा-यमुना दोआबात — दोन नद्यांमधील सुपीक भूमीत — सरकते. कुरू आणि पांचाल लोक आघाडीवर; आणखी पूर्वेला कोसल, काशी, विदेह. शतपथ ब्राह्मणातील एक कथा: विदेघ माथव अग्नीच्या मागे पूर्वेकडे जातो; अग्नी सदानीरा (गंडक) नदीजवळ थांबतो, पलीकडे विदेहात लोक वसतात. नवे शेत करण्याआधी काटेरी झुडपे जाळून जमीन साफ करावी तसे — अग्नी मार्गदर्शकही आणि जंगल जाळण्याचे साधनही. (→ English: Ganga-Yamuna doab · Kuru-Panchala · Videha · हिन्दी: गंगा-यमुना दोआब · कुरु-पांचाल · विदेह)

In exam EnglishThe centre of Vedic life now shifts from the Punjab to the Ganga-Yamuna doab, the fertile land between the two rivers. The Kurus and Panchalas become the leading peoples here. Further east lie Kosala, Kashi and Videha. A story in the Shatapatha Brahmana pictures this spread: Videgha Mathava follows the sacred fire, Agni, as it burns its way eastwards across the land until it stops at the river Sadanira, usually identified with the Gandak, and his people then settle beyond it in Videha. The tale is a memory of clearing and settling new country, with fire as both a sacred guide and the practical means of burning forest. The Ganga and Yamuna, barely named in the Rig Veda, now become the core of the Vedic map.

उत्खननही हेच सांगते. वरच्या गंगा मैदानात सुमारे इ.स.पू. 1000–600 काळातील स्थळांवर रंगीत धूसर मृद्भांडी मिळतात — राखाडी भांड्यांवर काळ्या रेषा, ठिपके, वर्तुळे. हस्तिनापूर (बी. बी. लाल यांचे उत्खनन), अतरंजीखेडा, अहिच्छत्र येथे सापडली. ही भांडी सापडणारा भाग ग्रंथांतील कुरू-पांचाल प्रदेशाशी जुळतो; पण मडके बोलत नाही — त्यांची भाषा सांगत नाही. लोखंडी बाणांची टोके, भाले मिळतात; ग्रंथ 'काळा धातू' (श्याम अयस) म्हणतात. आधी शस्त्रांसाठी, मग हळूहळू शेतीसाठी. (→ English: Painted Grey Ware · iron · हिन्दी: चित्रित धूसर मृद्भांड · लोहा)

In exam EnglishArchaeology supports this picture. In the upper Ganga plain and the Ghaggar region, many sites of roughly 1000 to 600 BCE yield Painted Grey Ware, a fine grey pottery with simple black designs such as lines, dots and circles. It was found at Hastinapur, excavated by B. B. Lal in the early 1950s, and at sites like Atranjikhera and Ahichchhatra. The area of this pottery broadly matches the Kuru-Panchala land of the texts, which is why it is linked with Later Vedic people, though a pot cannot tell us what language its makers spoke. Iron objects such as arrowheads, spearheads and some tools appear at these sites, and the texts begin to speak of 'black metal', shyama or krishna ayas. Iron was used first mainly for weapons; its wider use in farming came gradually.

स्थिर शेतीने राजकारण बदलले. एकाच जमिनीवर राहणाऱ्या टोळीने त्या भूमीशी आपली ओळख जोडली — जनपद म्हणजे 'टोळीने पाय रोवलेली जागा', म्हणजे एक प्रदेश. राजा बलवान झाला; पद वडिलांकडून मुलाकडे. सत्ता दाखवण्यासाठी मोठे यज्ञ: राजसूय (राज्याभिषेक), अश्वमेध (घोडा वर्षभर फिरेल तेवढा प्रदेश राजाचा — 'हा बैल जिथवर चालेल तिथवर माझे' म्हणावे तसे), वाजपेय (रथांची शर्यत, राजानेच जिंकायची). या यज्ञांमुळे पुरोहिताचे महत्त्व आणि दाने वाढली. (→ English: janapada · rajasuya · ashvamedha · vajapeya · हिन्दी: जनपद · राजसूय · अश्वमेध · वाजपेय)

In exam EnglishSettled farming changed politics. A tribe that now lived on one stretch of land began to identify with it, and the word janapada, literally 'the place where the tribe has set its foot', came to mean a territory. Kingship grew stronger and, in many places, passed from father to son. Kings took grand titles such as samrat and staged costly sacrifices to show their power. The rajasuya was the royal consecration, giving the king supreme authority. In the ashvamedha a horse was set free to roam for a year with an armed escort, and every region it passed through unchallenged was claimed by the king; it was then sacrificed. The vajapeya included a chariot race that the king was made to win, renewing his strength. These rites made the priest indispensable to royal power, and they cost the king large gifts of cattle, gold and land to the priests.
Later Vedic royal sacrifices
SacrificeWhat happenedPurpose
RajasuyaRoyal consecration; king visits the ratninsSupreme authority
AshvamedhaHorse roams a year, then sacrificedClaim over lands it crossed
VajapeyaChariot race won by the kingRenewal of royal strength

राजाभोवती अधिकाऱ्यांचा गट तयार झाला — त्यांना 'रत्निन' (रत्ने) म्हणत. राजसूयाच्या वेळी राजा प्रत्येक रत्निनाच्या घरी भेट घेऊन जाई — निवडणुकीआधी नेता प्रतिष्ठितांच्या घरी जातो तसे. पुरोहित, सेनानी, ग्रामणी, संग्रहीता (खजिना), भागदुघ (राजाचा वाटा वसूल). त्याच वेळी सभा आणि समिती दुबळ्या झाल्या; विदथ दिसेनासे झाले; स्त्रिया सभेत बसणे बंद झाले. स्वखुशीने दिली जाणारी बली आता नियमित भरणा — ओझे मुख्यतः वैश्यांवर. (→ English: ratnins · sabha · samiti · bali · हिन्दी: रत्निन · सभा · समिति · बलि)

In exam EnglishThe king also gathered a circle of officers. Texts call them ratnins, 'jewels', and during the rajasuya the king visited each of their homes with offerings, a sign that he needed their support. The list includes the purohita, the senani or commander, the gramani or village headman, the sangrahitri or treasurer and the bhagadugha, who collected the king's share. At the same time the old assemblies lost ground. The vidatha disappears from view; the sabha and samiti still exist, but they no longer check the king as before, the sabha becomes more like a royal court, and women no longer sit in it. Bali, once a voluntary gift, turns into a regular payment, and the burden falls mainly on the Vaishyas, the farmers and herders.

अर्थव्यवस्था पूर्णपणे शेतीकडे वळली. अनेक बैल ओढणारे जड नांगर; पिके वाढली — जव, भात (व्रीही), गहू, डाळी, तीळ. ओलसर पूर्वेकडील भागात भात मुख्य अन्न. गुरे मौल्यवान होतीच, पण आता जमीन हीच संपत्ती — गावात गायी असलेल्यापेक्षा एकर असलेला मोठा, तसे. लोहार, कुंभार, सुतार, विणकर, रथ बनवणारे; काही व्यावसायिक गट एकत्र काम करू लागले. अजून नाणी नव्हती — निष्क, शतमान सोन्याच्या किमतीचे माप; कृष्णल हा लहान दाणा वजनासाठी. (→ English: rice (vrihi) · nishka · shatamana · krishnala · हिन्दी: व्रीहि · निष्क · शतमान · कृष्णल)

In exam EnglishThe economy turned decisively towards farming. Ploughing is described in detail in the later texts, with heavy ploughs drawn by teams of oxen, and the list of crops grows: barley still, but now also rice, called vrihi, wheat, pulses and sesame. Rice suited the wetter lands to the east and became the staple there. Cattle remained precious, but land was now the basis of wealth. Specialist crafts multiplied: smiths, potters, carpenters, weavers and makers of chariots appear in the texts, and some groups of traders and artisans begin to act together, hinting at the guilds of later times. Exchange still had no coins. The nishka, now joined by the shatamana, served as a measure of gold value, and the krishnala, a small berry used as a weight, measured small quantities. Hastinapur and Kaushambi grew larger towards the end of the period.

समाजात विषमता वाढली. ऋग्वेदात एकदाच आलेली चार भागांची वर्ण व्यवस्था आता रोजचे जीवन ठरवू लागली: ब्राह्मण, क्षत्रिय, वैश्य, आणि तळाशी शूद्र. पहिल्या तिघांना उपनयन — 'द्विज'; शूद्रांना नाही. जन्मानेच स्थान, लग्न आणि एकत्र जेवणावर बंधने. गोत्र म्हणजे आधी 'गोठा', मग एकाच पूर्वजाचा वंश; एकाच गोत्रात लग्न नाही — आजही स्थळ पाहताना 'गोत्र कोणते?' विचारतात ते यामुळेच. तीन ऋणे: देवांचे (यज्ञ), ऋषींचे (वेदाध्ययन), पितरांचे (संतती). (→ English: varna · gotra · three debts · हिन्दी: वर्ण · गोत्र · तीन ऋण)

In exam EnglishSociety became more unequal. The four-fold varna order, mentioned only once in the late Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda, now shapes daily life: Brahmanas as priests and teachers, Kshatriyas as rulers and warriors, Vaishyas as farmers, herders and traders who paid tribute, and Shudras, placed at the bottom and expected to serve the other three. The first three were 'twice-born' through the upanayana, the sacred-thread initiation, from which Shudras were excluded. Membership was increasingly fixed by birth, and rules on marriage and on sharing food grew stricter. The gotra also took shape. The word first meant a cow-pen, then came to mean a line of descent from a common ancestor, and marriage within the same gotra was forbidden. Texts also speak of three debts every man owed: to the gods, repaid by sacrifice; to the seers, by studying the Veda; and to the ancestors, by having sons.

द्विजाचे जीवन टप्प्यांत विभागले — प्रत्येक टप्पा एक आश्रम. उत्तर वैदिक ग्रंथांना तीन माहीत आहेत: ब्रह्मचर्य (गुरूकडे शिक्षण), गृहस्थ (लग्न, कमाई, यज्ञ), वानप्रस्थ (वृद्धपणी वनाकडे). चौथा संन्यास नंतर रूढ झाला. शाळा, नोकरी-संसार, निवृत्ती असे समजा. जन्मापासून मृत्यूपर्यंत संस्कार (नंतर सोळा). स्त्रियांचे स्थान घटले; तरीही बृहदारण्यक उपनिषदात गार्गी याज्ञवल्क्यांना खुल्या वादात प्रश्न विचारते, मैत्रेयी अमरत्वावर बोलते. (→ English: ashrama · samskara · Gargi · Maitreyi · हिन्दी: आश्रम · संस्कार · गार्गी · मैत्रेयी)

In exam EnglishThe ideal life of a twice-born man was now divided into stages, each an ashrama. The Later Vedic texts know three: brahmacharya, as a celibate student living with a teacher; grihastha, as a householder who marries, earns, performs sacrifices and supports others; and vanaprastha, partial withdrawal to the forest in later years. The fourth stage, sannyasa, full renunciation, became established only after this period. Life was also marked by samskaras, rites of passage from birth to death, later counted as sixteen. Women's place narrowed compared with the Rig Vedic age: they lost their seat in the sabha. There were notable exceptions. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Gargi Vachaknavi questions the sage Yajnavalkya in open debate, and Maitreyi, his wife, discusses with him what makes a person immortal.

धर्म एकाच वेळी दोन दिशांनी गेला. एकीकडे यज्ञ खूप मोठा आणि गुंतागुंतीचा झाला — प्रजापती मुख्य देव, विष्णू आणि रुद्र यांचे महत्त्व वाढले, इंद्र-अग्नींचे घटले. चार प्रकारचे पुरोहित: होता, उद्गाता, अध्वर्यू, ब्रह्मा — मोठ्या लग्नाला आचारी, वाढपी, देखरेख करणारा सगळे लागतात तसे. दुसरीकडे उपनिषद विचारवंतांनी विचारले, 'या कर्मकांडामागे काय आहे?': आत्मा आणि ब्रह्म एकच — 'तत् त्वम् असि'. कर्म, पुनर्जन्म, ज्ञानाने मोक्ष. विदेहाचा राजा जनक यांसारखे राजेही या चर्चेत पुढे होते. (→ English: yajna · Upanishad · atman · brahman · moksha · हिन्दी: यज्ञ · उपनिषद · आत्मन् · ब्रह्म · मोक्ष)

In exam EnglishReligion moved in two directions at once. On one side, the yajna grew enormous and technical. Prajapati, the creator, rose to the top of the pantheon, Vishnu and Rudra gained importance, and Indra and Agni lost some of their earlier standing. A full sacrifice could need four kinds of priest: the hotri reciting Rig Vedic hymns, the udgatri singing the Sama chants, the adhvaryu performing the actions with Yajur formulas, and the brahman watching over the whole. On the other side, the Upanishad thinkers asked what lies behind all ritual. They taught that the self, atman, is one with brahman, the ultimate reality, summed up in the Chandogya Upanishad's 'tat tvam asi', 'that you are'. They developed the ideas of karma, rebirth and liberation, moksha, through knowledge rather than sacrifice; rulers took part too: King Janaka of Videha hosted and joined such debates.

दोन्ही वैदिक टप्पे शेजारी ठेवले तर एकच कथा — भटके लोक स्थिरावणे. पूर्व काळ: वायव्येकडील गुराखी, सभांना उत्तरदायी टोळीप्रमुख, निसर्गदेवता. उत्तर काळ: दोआबातील शेतकरी, लोखंड, प्रादेशिक राजे, कडक वर्ण-गोत्र, मोठे यज्ञ, आणि त्याच वेळी त्यांना प्रश्न विचारणारी उपनिषदे. हडप्पाशी तुलना: त्यांची नियोजित शहरे, गटारे, लिपी; वैदिक जग ग्रामीण, ज्ञान तोंडी; लोखंड आणि घोड्याचा रथ वैदिक ग्रंथांत ठळक. हे प्रश्न आणि नवी राज्ये महाजनपदे, बुद्ध, महावीर यांच्या काळाकडे नेतात. (→ English: Early Vedic · Later Vedic · Harappan civilisation · हिन्दी: पूर्व वैदिक · उत्तर वैदिक · हड़प्पा सभ्यता)

In exam EnglishPut side by side, the two Vedic stages tell one story of settling down. The Rig Vedic people were mobile herders in the northwest, led by tribal chiefs who answered to assemblies, with flexible social roles and gods of nature worshipped with simple offerings. The Later Vedic people were farmers of the Ganga-Yamuna doab and beyond, with iron, territorial kings, rigid varna and gotra rules, priest-heavy ritual and, at the same time, the first deep questioning of ritual. Against the Harappans: they built planned cities with drains and a script, while the Vedic world was rural and its knowledge oral; iron and the horse-drawn spoked chariot are prominent in Vedic texts but not in the Harappan record. The questions raised by the Upanishads, and the new kingdoms and towns of the Ganga plain, lead straight into the age of the Mahajanapadas, the Buddha and Mahavira.
Early Vedic and Later Vedic compared
AspectEarly Vedic (c. 1500–1000 BCE)Later Vedic (c. 1000–600 BCE)
RegionSapta Sindhu (Punjab)Ganga-Yamuna doab and the east
EconomyPastoral; cattle as wealth; barleySettled farming; rice, wheat; iron
PolityTribal chief; strong assembliesTerritorial king; assemblies weaken
BaliVoluntaryRegular payment
SocietyVarna loose, not by birthVarna by birth; gotra
WomenIn assemblies; hymn composersNarrower role; Gargi, Maitreyi as exceptions
GodsIndra, Agni, VarunaPrajapati, Vishnu, Rudra
Main textsRig VedaOther Vedas, Brahmanas, Upanishads

Exam traps

Recap

Practice questions

Q1. Which one of the Vedas is chiefly a collection of charms and spells for everyday needs such as healing and protection?

  1. Rig Veda
  2. Sama Veda
  3. Yajur Veda
  4. Atharva Veda
Show answer

Answer: D. Atharva Veda

Answer (d). The Atharva Veda gathers charms against illness, snakes and enemies and prayers for daily welfare. The Rig Veda (a) is hymns of praise; the Sama Veda (b) sets verses to melody; the Yajur Veda (c) holds the formulas used while performing ritual.

Q2. The national motto 'Satyameva Jayate' is taken from which text?

  1. Rig Veda
  2. Mundaka Upanishad
  3. Chandogya Upanishad
  4. Shatapatha Brahmana
Show answer

Answer: B. Mundaka Upanishad

Answer (b). The phrase is from the Mundaka Upanishad. It is not from the Rig Veda (a); the Chandogya Upanishad (c) is the source of 'tat tvam asi'; the Shatapatha Brahmana (d) is a ritual text that tells the story of Videgha Mathava.

Q3. Consider the following statements about Painted Grey Ware:
1. It is associated with the Later Vedic period in the upper Ganga plain.
2. It has been found at Hastinapur and Atranjikhera.
3. It is the characteristic pottery of the mature Harappan cities.
Which of the statements given above are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 1 and 2 only
  3. 2 and 3 only
  4. 1, 2 and 3
Show answer

Answer: B. 1 and 2 only

Answer (b). Statements 1 and 2 are correct. Statement 3 is wrong: Painted Grey Ware belongs to roughly 1000–600 BCE, long after the Harappan cities. Option (a) leaves out statement 2, and options (c) and (d) include the false statement 3.

Q4. Match the sacrifice with its main feature:
A. Rajasuya 1. A horse roams for a year
B. Ashvamedha 2. A chariot race won by the king
C. Vajapeya 3. Royal consecration
Select the correct code:

  1. A-3, B-1, C-2
  2. A-1, B-3, C-2
  3. A-2, B-1, C-3
  4. A-3, B-2, C-1
Show answer

Answer: A. A-3, B-1, C-2

Answer (a). The rajasuya is the consecration, the ashvamedha involves the roaming horse and the vajapeya the chariot race. Option (b) gives the horse to the rajasuya, (c) gives the chariot race to the rajasuya, and (d) swaps the horse and the chariot race.

Q5. Consider the following statements about the Later Vedic period:
1. The vidatha disappears from the record.
2. Women continued to attend the sabha as in the Rig Vedic age.
3. Bali became a regular payment rather than a voluntary gift.
Which of the statements given above are correct?

  1. 1 and 2 only
  2. 1 and 3 only
  3. 2 and 3 only
  4. 1, 2 and 3
Show answer

Answer: B. 1 and 3 only

Answer (b). Statements 1 and 3 are correct. Statement 2 is wrong: women lost their place in the sabha in this period. Options (a), (c) and (d) all include statement 2.

Q6. Which one of the following pairs of Vedanga and its subject is NOT correctly matched?

  1. Shiksha : phonetics
  2. Chhandas : metre
  3. Nirukta : astronomy
  4. Kalpa : ritual rules
Show answer

Answer: C. Nirukta : astronomy

Answer (c). Nirukta deals with the meaning and origin of words; astronomy and the calendar belong to Jyotisha. Shiksha (a) is phonetics, Chhandas (b) is metre and Kalpa (d) gives ritual rules, so those pairs are correct.

Q7. In the Later Vedic texts, the debt owed to the seers (rishis) was repaid by

  1. performing sacrifices
  2. studying the Veda
  3. having sons
  4. giving land to the king
Show answer

Answer: B. studying the Veda

Answer (b). The debt to the seers was repaid through Vedic study. Sacrifice (a) repays the debt to the gods and having sons (c) the debt to the ancestors; giving land to the king (d) is not one of the three debts.

Q8. Consider the following statements about the Upanishads:
1. They teach that atman is one with brahman.
2. They place liberation through knowledge above the performance of sacrifice.
3. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Gargi debates with Yajnavalkya.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 1 and 2 only
  3. 2 and 3 only
  4. 1, 2 and 3
Show answer

Answer: D. 1, 2 and 3

Answer (d). All three statements are correct: the Upanishads identify atman with brahman, prefer knowledge to ritual as the path to moksha, and the Brihadaranyaka shows Gargi questioning Yajnavalkya. Options (a), (b) and (c) each leave out at least one true statement.

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