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English · हिन्दी · తెలుగు · தமிழ் · മലയാളം · मराठी · ಕನ್ನಡ

Salient features, sources, Parts and Schedules

ಕನ್ನಡದಲ್ಲಿ ವಿವರಣೆ

Salient features and citizenship · Part 1 / 1 · Fact-checked on · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

What kind of document the Constitution is: its adoption and commencement, its length, the sources it borrowed from (the 1935 Act and ten other constitutions), its blend of rigidity and flexibility, federalism with a unitary bias, parliamentary government, an integrated judiciary, the three layers of rights and duties, secularism, adult franchise, safety valves, and a map of its 25 Parts and 12 Schedules.

Each idea is explained first in Kannada (ಕನ್ನಡ), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Kannada and revise it in English.

ಸಂವಿಧಾನ ರಚನಾ ಸಭೆ 26 ನವೆಂಬರ್ 1949ರಂದು ಭಾರತದ ಸಂವಿಧಾನವನ್ನು ಅಂಗೀಕರಿಸಿತು; 26 ಜನವರಿ 1950ರಂದು ಪೂರ್ಣವಾಗಿ ಜಾರಿಗೆ ಬಂತು — 26 ಜನವರಿ 1930 ಪೂರ್ಣ ಸ್ವರಾಜ್ ದಿನವಾಗಿ ಆಚರಿಸಿದ್ದರಿಂದ ಆ ದಿನಾಂಕ. ಪೌರತ್ವ, ಚುನಾವಣೆಯಂತಹ ಕೆಲವು ಉಪಬಂಧಗಳು 26 ನವೆಂಬರ್ 1949ರಿಂದಲೇ (ವಿಧಿ 394). ಈ ಅಧ್ಯಾಯದಲ್ಲಿ ಎರಡು ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆ: ಭಾಗ 1 — ಸಂವಿಧಾನ ಎಂಥ ದಾಖಲೆ, ಮುಖ್ಯ ಲಕ್ಷಣಗಳು, ವಿಚಾರಗಳು ಎಲ್ಲಿಂದ, ಭಾಗಗಳು-ಅನುಸೂಚಿಗಳು ಹೇಗೆ ಜೋಡಿಸಿವೆ. ಭಾಗ 2 — ಈ ಸಮುದಾಯದ ಸದಸ್ಯರು ಯಾರು, ಅಂದರೆ ನಾಗರಿಕ ಯಾರು. ಹೊಸ ಮನೆಯ ನಕ್ಷೆ ಮೊದಲು ನೋಡಿದರೆ ಯಾವ ಕೋಣೆ ಎಲ್ಲಿದೆ ಎಂದು ಸುಲಭವಾಗಿ ತಿಳಿಯುತ್ತದೆ — ಹಾಗೆ. (→ English: Constitution · हिन्दी: संविधान)

In exam EnglishThe Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution of India on 26 November 1949, and it came fully into force on 26 January 1950, a date chosen because 26 January 1930 had been observed as Purna Swaraj Day. A few provisions, including those on citizenship and elections, took effect on 26 November 1949 itself (Article 394). This chapter asks two basic questions. Part 1 asks what kind of document the Constitution is: its salient features, the sources its ideas came from, and how its Parts and Schedules are arranged. Part 2 asks who belongs to the political community it creates, that is, who is a citizen. Both questions sit underneath every other chapter, because an Article is easier to understand once the overall design is clear.

ಜಗತ್ತಿನ ಅತಿ ಉದ್ದದ ಲಿಖಿತ ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಸಂವಿಧಾನ ನಮ್ಮದು. ಮೊದಲು ಪೀಠಿಕೆ, 22 ಭಾಗಗಳಲ್ಲಿ 395 ವಿಧಿಗಳು, 8 ಅನುಸೂಚಿಗಳು. ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿಗಳು 21A, 243ZT ಯಂತಹ ಅಕ್ಷರ ವಿಧಿಗಳು, IVA, IXA, IXB, XIVA ಯಂತಹ ಹೊಸ ಭಾಗಗಳು, ನಾಲ್ಕು ಅನುಸೂಚಿಗಳನ್ನು ಸೇರಿಸಿವೆ — ಈಗ 25 ಭಾಗಗಳು, 12 ಅನುಸೂಚಿಗಳು; ಕೊನೆಯ ವಿಧಿಯ ಸಂಖ್ಯೆ ಇನ್ನೂ 395. ಏಕೆ ಇಷ್ಟು ಉದ್ದ? ದೇಶ ದೊಡ್ಡದು, ವೈವಿಧ್ಯ ಹೆಚ್ಚು — ಕೆಲವು ರಾಜ್ಯ, ಪ್ರದೇಶ, ಸಮುದಾಯಗಳಿಗೆ ವಿಶೇಷ ಉಪಬಂಧ; ಕೇಂದ್ರ, ರಾಜ್ಯ ಎರಡಕ್ಕೂ ಒಂದೇ ದಾಖಲೆ (2019ರವರೆಗೆ ಜಮ್ಮು-ಕಾಶ್ಮೀರ ಹೊರತು); 1935ರ ಕಾಯ್ದೆಯಿಂದ ಆಡಳಿತ ವಿವರ; ಬರೆದವರಲ್ಲಿ ಹಲವರು ವಕೀಲರು, ರೂಢಿಗಿಂತ ಬರೆದ ನಿಯಮ ಬಯಸಿದರು. ದೊಡ್ಡ ಅವಿಭಕ್ತ ಕುಟುಂಬಕ್ಕೆ ಒಂದೇ ದೊಡ್ಡ ನಿಯಮ ಪುಸ್ತಕ ಬರೆದಂತೆ. (→ English: Constitution · हिन्दी: संविधान)

In exam EnglishIndia has the longest written national constitution in the world. As adopted, it had a Preamble, 395 Articles in 22 Parts and 8 Schedules. Amendments have since added many lettered Articles such as 21A and 243ZT, new Parts such as IVA, IXA, IXB and XIVA, and four Schedules, so it now has 25 Parts and 12 Schedules, while the last Article is still numbered 395. Several reasons explain the length. The country's size and diversity called for special provisions for particular States, regions and communities. A single document lays down the government of both the Union and the States, the one historical exception being Jammu and Kashmir until 2019. Much administrative detail was carried over from the Government of India Act, 1935, and the framers, many of them lawyers, preferred written rules to unwritten conventions.

ಸಂವಿಧಾನ ರಚನಾಕಾರರು ಹೊಸತನಕ್ಕಾಗಿಯೇ ಹೊಸತನ ಹುಡುಕಲಿಲ್ಲ. ಅತಿ ದೊಡ್ಡ ಏಕ ಮೂಲ 1935ರ ಭಾರತ ಸರ್ಕಾರ ಕಾಯ್ದೆ — ಒಕ್ಕೂಟ ಯೋಜನೆ, ರಾಜ್ಯಪಾಲ ಹುದ್ದೆ, ನ್ಯಾಯಾಂಗ ರಚನೆ, ಲೋಕಸೇವಾ ಆಯೋಗಗಳು, ತುರ್ತು ಉಪಬಂಧಗಳು, ಆಡಳಿತ ವಿವರ. ತತ್ವ ಸ್ವಾತಂತ್ರ್ಯ ಹೋರಾಟ, ಉದ್ದೇಶಗಳ ನಿರ್ಣಯದಿಂದ; ಕೆಲಸ ಮಾಡುವ ಭಾಗಗಳು ಇತರ ದೇಶಗಳಿಂದ: ಸಂಸದೀಯ ಸರ್ಕಾರ ಬ್ರಿಟನ್, ಮೂಲಭೂತ ಹಕ್ಕುಗಳು-ನ್ಯಾಯಾಂಗ ಪರಾಮರ್ಶೆ ಅಮೆರಿಕ, ನಿರ್ದೇಶಕ ತತ್ವಗಳು ಐರ್ಲೆಂಡ್, ಬಲಿಷ್ಠ ಕೇಂದ್ರದ ಒಕ್ಕೂಟ ಕೆನಡಾ, ಸಮವರ್ತಿ ಪಟ್ಟಿ ಆಸ್ಟ್ರೇಲಿಯಾ (ಕೋಷ್ಟಕ ನೋಡಿ). ಅಂಬೇಡ್ಕರ್ ಉತ್ತರ: 1949ರ ಹೊತ್ತಿಗೆ ಮೂಲ ವಿಚಾರಗಳು ಎಲ್ಲರಿಗೂ ಗೊತ್ತು; ದೋಷ ತೆಗೆದು ನಮ್ಮ ಅಗತ್ಯಕ್ಕೆ ಬದಲಿಸುವುದೇ ಮುಖ್ಯ. ಪಕ್ಕದ ಮನೆಯ ಅಡುಗೆ ಕಲಿತರೂ ನಮ್ಮ ರುಚಿಗೆ ಉಪ್ಪು-ಖಾರ ಬದಲಿಸಿದಂತೆ. (→ English: Government of India Act, 1935 · हिन्दी: भारत शासन अधिनियम, 1935)

In exam EnglishThe framers did not try to be original for its own sake. The largest single source is the Government of India Act, 1935, which supplied the federal scheme, the office of Governor, the structure of the judiciary, the Public Service Commissions, the emergency provisions and much administrative detail. The guiding philosophy came from the freedom struggle and the Objectives Resolution, while many working parts were taken from other democracies: parliamentary government from Britain, Fundamental Rights and judicial review from the United States, Directive Principles from Ireland, a federation with a strong Centre from Canada, the Concurrent List from Australia, and more, as the table shows. In the Assembly, B.R. Ambedkar answered the charge of borrowing: by 1949 the basic ideas of a constitution were common knowledge, and what mattered was changing them to remove their faults and to suit India's needs.
Where the Constitution's features came from
SourceFeatures taken
Government of India Act, 1935Federal scheme, office of Governor, judiciary, Public Service Commissions, emergency provisions, administrative detail
BritainParliamentary government, rule of law, law-making procedure, single citizenship, cabinet system, prerogative writs, bicameralism
United StatesFundamental Rights, independent judiciary, judicial review, impeachment of the President, removal of Supreme Court and High Court judges, office of Vice-President
IrelandDirective Principles, nomination of members to the Rajya Sabha, method of electing the President
CanadaFederation with a strong Centre, residuary powers with the Centre, Governors appointed by the Centre, advisory jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
AustraliaConcurrent List, freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse, joint sitting of the two Houses
Weimar GermanySuspension of Fundamental Rights during an emergency
Former USSRFundamental Duties; ideal of social, economic and political justice in the Preamble
FranceRepublic; ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity in the Preamble
South AfricaProcedure for amending the Constitution; election of Rajya Sabha members
JapanProcedure established by law

ಬದಲಿಸುವುದು ಕಷ್ಟವಾದರೆ ಕಠಿಣ ಸಂವಿಧಾನ, ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಕಾನೂನಿನಿಂದ ಬದಲಾದರೆ ನಮ್ಯ; ನಮ್ಮದು ಎರಡರ ಮಿಶ್ರಣ. ಕೆಲವನ್ನು ಸಂಸತ್ತು ಸರಳ ಬಹುಮತದಿಂದ ಬದಲಿಸಬಹುದು — ಅವು ವಿಧಿ 368ರ ಅಡಿ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ ಅಲ್ಲ ಎಂದು ಸಂವಿಧಾನವೇ ಹೇಳುತ್ತದೆ: ಹೊಸ ರಾಜ್ಯ, ಗಡಿ (2–4), ವಿಧಾನ ಪರಿಷತ್ ರಚನೆ-ರದ್ದು (169), ಅನುಸೂಚಿತ-ಬುಡಕಟ್ಟು ಪ್ರದೇಶ ಆಡಳಿತ. ಹೆಚ್ಚಿನವಕ್ಕೆ 368ರ ಅಡಿ ವಿಶೇಷ ಬಹುಮತ: ಪ್ರತಿ ಸದನದ ಒಟ್ಟು ಸದಸ್ಯರ ಬಹುಮತ, ಹಾಜರಿದ್ದು ಮತ ಹಾಕಿದವರಲ್ಲಿ ಮೂರನೇ ಎರಡು. ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಪತಿ ಚುನಾವಣೆ, ಶಾಸನಾಧಿಕಾರ ಹಂಚಿಕೆಯಂತಹ ಒಕ್ಕೂಟ ವಿಷಯಗಳಿಗೆ ಜೊತೆಗೆ ಅರ್ಧ ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳ ಅನುಮೋದನೆ. ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ ಅಧಿಕಾರಕ್ಕೂ ಮಿತಿ: ಕೇಶವಾನಂದ ಭಾರತಿ (1973)ಯಿಂದ ಮೂಲ ರಚನೆಯನ್ನು ನಾಶಮಾಡಲಾಗದು. ಮನೆಯ ಪೀಠೋಪಕರಣ ಬದಲಿಸಬಹುದು, ಗೋಡೆಗೆ ಅನುಮತಿ ಬೇಕು, ಅಡಿಪಾಯ ಮುಟ್ಟುವಂತಿಲ್ಲ. ಇದೇ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿಯ ನಿಯಮ. (→ English: basic structure · हिन्दी: मूल ढांचा)

In exam EnglishA constitution is rigid if it is hard to change and flexible if ordinary law can change it; India's is a blend of both. Some provisions can be altered by Parliament by a simple majority, because the Constitution itself says such laws are not amendments for the purposes of Article 368: forming new States and changing boundaries (Articles 2–4), creating or abolishing a State Legislative Council (Article 169) and the administration of Scheduled and tribal areas. Most provisions need a special majority under Article 368: a majority of the total membership of each House and two-thirds of the members present and voting. Provisions that affect the federal balance, such as the election of the President or the distribution of legislative powers, need that special majority plus ratification by the legislatures of at least half the States. The Amendment power has a limit too: since Kesavananda Bharati (1973), Parliament cannot destroy the basic structure.

ಸಂವಿಧಾನ ಒಕ್ಕೂಟ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ ರಚಿಸುತ್ತದೆ: ಎರಡು ಹಂತದ ಸರ್ಕಾರ, ಏಳನೇ ಅನುಸೂಚಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಲಿಖಿತ ಅಧಿಕಾರ ಹಂಚಿಕೆ, ಅದನ್ನು ಬದಲಿಸಲು ಕಠಿಣ ವಿಧಾನ, ವಿವಾದಗಳಿಗೆ ಸ್ವತಂತ್ರ ನ್ಯಾಯಾಂಗ. ಆದರೂ ವಿಧಿ 1 ಭಾರತವನ್ನು 'ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳ ಒಕ್ಕೂಟ' ಎನ್ನುತ್ತದೆ; ಒಲವು ಕೇಂದ್ರದ ಕಡೆ: ಒಂದೇ ಸಂವಿಧಾನ, ಏಕ ಪೌರತ್ವ, ಸಮಗ್ರ ನ್ಯಾಯಾಂಗ, ಅಖಿಲ ಭಾರತ ಸೇವೆಗಳು, ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಪತಿ ನೇಮಿಸುವ ರಾಜ್ಯಪಾಲರು, ವಿಧಿ 3ರ ಅಡಿ ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳನ್ನು ಬದಲಿಸುವ ಅಧಿಕಾರ, ಬಹುತೇಕ ಏಕಾತ್ಮಕಗೊಳಿಸುವ ತುರ್ತು ಉಪಬಂಧಗಳು. ಅಂಬೇಡ್ಕರ್: ಒಕ್ಕೂಟ ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳ ಒಪ್ಪಂದದ ಫಲವಲ್ಲ, ಆದ್ದರಿಂದ ಯಾವ ರಾಜ್ಯಕ್ಕೂ ಬೇರ್ಪಡುವ ಹಕ್ಕಿಲ್ಲ. ಆದ್ದರಿಂದ ಅರೆ-ಒಕ್ಕೂಟ ಎನ್ನುತ್ತಾರೆ; ಬೊಮ್ಮಾಯಿ (1994) ಪ್ರಕರಣದಲ್ಲಿ ಸುಪ್ರೀಂ ಕೋರ್ಟ್ ಒಕ್ಕೂಟ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ ಮೂಲ ರಚನೆಯ ಭಾಗ ಎಂದಿತು. ದೊಡ್ಡ ಕುಟುಂಬದಲ್ಲಿ ಬೇರೆ ಕೋಣೆಗಳಿದ್ದರೂ ಮನೆ ಒಂದೇ. (→ English: federalism · हिन्दी: संघवाद)

In exam EnglishThe Constitution sets up a federal system: two levels of government, a written division of powers in the Seventh Schedule, a hard procedure for changing that division, and an independent judiciary to settle disputes. Yet Article 1 calls India a 'Union of States', and the design leans towards the Centre. There is a single Constitution and a single citizenship, one integrated judiciary, All India Services that serve both levels, Governors appointed by the President, Parliament's power under Article 3 to reshape States, and emergency provisions that can make the system almost unitary. Ambedkar explained the choice of words: the Union was not the result of an agreement among the States, so no State has the right to secede from it. The system is therefore often called quasi-federal, while the Supreme Court in S.R. Bommai (1994) held federalism to be part of the basic structure.

ಕೇಂದ್ರ, ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳೆರಡಕ್ಕೂ ಬ್ರಿಟಿಷ್ ಮಾದರಿಯ ಸಂಸದೀಯ ಸರ್ಕಾರ. ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಪತಿ ನಾಮಮಾತ್ರ ಮುಖ್ಯಸ್ಥರು; ನಿಜವಾದ ಅಧಿಕಾರ ಪ್ರಧಾನಿ ನೇತೃತ್ವದ ಸಚಿವ ಸಂಪುಟಕ್ಕೆ — ಸಂಸತ್ತು ಸದಸ್ಯರಿಂದಲೇ, ಲೋಕಸಭೆಯ ವಿಶ್ವಾಸ ಇರುವವರೆಗೆ ಮಾತ್ರ (75(3) ಸಾಮೂಹಿಕ ಹೊಣೆಗಾರಿಕೆ). ಅಮೆರಿಕದ ಅಧ್ಯಕ್ಷೀಯ ಪದ್ಧತಿಗಿಂತ ಇದೇಕೆ? ಚುನಾವಣೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಮಾತ್ರವಲ್ಲ, ದಿನವೂ ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆ, ಚರ್ಚೆ, ಅವಿಶ್ವಾಸ ನಿರ್ಣಯಗಳ ಮೂಲಕ ಉತ್ತರಿಸಬೇಕು. ಆದರೆ ನಮ್ಮ ಸಂಸತ್ತು ಬ್ರಿಟನ್‌ನಂತೆ ಸಾರ್ವಭೌಮವಲ್ಲ — ಲಿಖಿತ ಸಂವಿಧಾನ ಮಿತಿ ಹಾಕುತ್ತದೆ, ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯಗಳು ನ್ಯಾಯಾಂಗ ಪರಾಮರ್ಶೆಯಿಂದ ಕಾನೂನು ರದ್ದುಪಡಿಸಬಹುದು. ಸಮತೋಲನ: ಸಂಸತ್ತು ಬಹುಪಾಲು ತಿದ್ದಬಹುದು, ಮೂಲ ರಚನೆಯನ್ನು ಗೌರವಿಸಿದೆಯೇ ಎಂದು ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯ ನೋಡುತ್ತದೆ. ತರಗತಿ ನಾಯಕ ದಿನವೂ ಶಿಕ್ಷಕರಿಗೆ ಉತ್ತರಿಸಬೇಕು, ಶಾಲೆಯ ನಿಯಮ ಅವನಿಗೂ ಅನ್ವಯ. (→ English: judicial review · हिन्दी: न्यायिक पुनर्विलोकन)

In exam EnglishIndia chose the parliamentary form of government on the British model, for both the Union and the States. The President is the nominal head; real power lies with the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister, drawn from Parliament and in office only while it keeps the confidence of the Lok Sabha, because Article 75(3) makes it collectively responsible to that House. The framers preferred this to the American presidential system because it makes the executive answer every day, through questions, debates and no-confidence motions, and not only at fixed elections. Parliament in India is not sovereign in the British sense, however. A written Constitution limits it, and courts can strike down its laws through judicial review. The result is a balance between parliamentary sovereignty and judicial supremacy: Parliament can amend most of the Constitution, but the courts decide whether an amendment respects the basic structure.

ನ್ಯಾಯಾಂಗ ಸಮಗ್ರವೂ ಸ್ವತಂತ್ರವೂ ಹೌದು. ಸುಪ್ರೀಂ ಕೋರ್ಟ್‌ನಿಂದ ಹೈಕೋರ್ಟ್‌ಗಳು, ಕೆಳ ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯಗಳವರೆಗೆ ಒಂದೇ ಸರಣಿ; ಅಮೆರಿಕದಂತೆ ಕೇಂದ್ರ, ರಾಜ್ಯ ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯಗಳು ಬೇರೆ ಅಲ್ಲ — ಅವೇ ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯಗಳು ಎರಡೂ ಕಾನೂನು ಜಾರಿ ಮಾಡುತ್ತವೆ. ಸ್ವಾತಂತ್ರ್ಯಕ್ಕೆ: ಅವಧಿಯ ಭದ್ರತೆ, ಕಠಿಣ ಪದಚ್ಯುತಿ, ಸಂಚಿತ ನಿಧಿಯ ಮೇಲೆ ವೇತನ, ನಿವೃತ್ತಿಯ ನಂತರ ವಕೀಲಿಕೆಗೆ ಮಿತಿ. ಹಕ್ಕುಗಳ ಕಡೆ ಮೂರು ಪದರ: ಮೂಲಭೂತ ಹಕ್ಕುಗಳು (ಭಾಗ III) — ಉಲ್ಲಂಘನೆಯಾದರೆ ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯಕ್ಕೆ ಹೋಗಬಹುದು; ರಾಜ್ಯ ನಿರ್ದೇಶಕ ತತ್ವಗಳು (ಭಾಗ IV) — ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯ ಜಾರಿ ಮಾಡಿಸುವುದಿಲ್ಲ, ಆದರೆ ವಿಧಿ 37 ಆಡಳಿತಕ್ಕೆ ಮೂಲಭೂತ ಎನ್ನುತ್ತದೆ; ಮೂಲಭೂತ ಕರ್ತವ್ಯಗಳು (ಭಾಗ IVA, 42ನೇ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ 1976) — ಹಕ್ಕುಗಳ ಜೊತೆ ಹೊಣೆಯ ನೆನಪು. ಮನೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಮಕ್ಕಳಿಗೆ ಹಕ್ಕುಗಳಿರುವಂತೆ ಕೆಲಸಗಳೂ ಇರುತ್ತವೆ. (→ English: Fundamental Rights · हिन्दी: मूल अधिकार)

In exam EnglishThe judiciary is both integrated and independent. One hierarchy runs from the Supreme Court through the High Courts to the subordinate courts, and the same courts apply Union and State laws, unlike the separate federal and state courts of the United States. Independence is protected by security of tenure, a hard removal procedure, salaries charged on the Consolidated Fund and limits on practising law after retirement. The rights side of the Constitution has three layers. Fundamental Rights in Part III are justiciable: a person can go to court if they are violated. The Directive Principles of State Policy in Part IV cannot be enforced by any court, yet Article 37 calls them fundamental in the governance of the country. Fundamental Duties, added as Part IVA by the 42nd Amendment (1976), remind citizens that rights come with obligations.

ನಾಗರಿಕ-ರಾಜ್ಯದ ಸಂಬಂಧವನ್ನು ಮೂರು ಲಕ್ಷಣಗಳು ರೂಪಿಸುತ್ತವೆ. ಭಾರತ ಧರ್ಮನಿರಪೇಕ್ಷ ರಾಜ್ಯ: ಅಧಿಕೃತ ಧರ್ಮವಿಲ್ಲ, ಎಲ್ಲ ಧರ್ಮಗಳಿಗೆ ಸಮಾನ ಗೌರವ, 25–28ರಲ್ಲಿ ಧಾರ್ಮಿಕ ಸ್ವಾತಂತ್ರ್ಯ; 'ಧರ್ಮನಿರಪೇಕ್ಷ' ಪದ 42ನೇ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿಯಿಂದ (1976) ಪೀಠಿಕೆಗೆ ಬಂತು, ಕಲ್ಪನೆ ಮೊದಲಿನಿಂದಲೂ ಇತ್ತು. ಚುನಾವಣೆಗಳು ಸಾರ್ವತ್ರಿಕ ವಯಸ್ಕ ಮತದಾನದ ಹಕ್ಕು (ವಿಧಿ 326) ಮೇಲೆ: ಆಸ್ತಿ, ಶಿಕ್ಷಣ, ತೆರಿಗೆ ಷರತ್ತಿಲ್ಲ. ವಯಸ್ಸು 21 ಇತ್ತು; 61ನೇ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ (1988) 18ಕ್ಕೆ ಇಳಿಸಿತು. 1951–52ರ ಮೊದಲ ಚುನಾವಣೆಯಲ್ಲೇ ಪ್ರತಿ ವಯಸ್ಕರಿಗೂ ಮತ — ಬಹುಮಂದಿಗೆ ಓದಲು ಬಾರದ ದೇಶದಲ್ಲಿ ದಿಟ್ಟ ನಿರ್ಧಾರ; ಹಳೆಯ ಪ್ರಜಾಪ್ರಭುತ್ವಗಳು ಹಂತಹಂತವಾಗಿ ಕೊಟ್ಟವು. ಕೊನೆಗೆ ಏಕ ಪೌರತ್ವ: ರಾಜ್ಯದ ನಾಗರಿಕನಲ್ಲ, ಭಾರತದ ನಾಗರಿಕ — ಭಾಗ 2ರಲ್ಲಿ. ಗ್ರಾಮಸಭೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ದೊಡ್ಡವರು-ಚಿಕ್ಕವರು ಎಲ್ಲರ ಕೈಯಲ್ಲೂ ಒಂದೇ ಮತ. (→ English: universal adult franchise · हिन्दी: सार्वभौम वयस्क मताधिकार)

In exam EnglishThree features shape the citizen's relationship with the State. India is a Secular State: it has no official religion, treats all faiths with equal respect and guarantees freedom of religion in Articles 25–28; the word 'secular' entered the Preamble through the 42nd Amendment (1976), but the idea was there from the start. Elections rest on universal adult franchise (Article 326): every citizen of the required age may vote, with no test of property, education or tax payment. The age was 21 until the 61st Amendment (1988) lowered it to 18. Giving the vote to every adult at once, in the first general election of 1951–52, was a bold choice for a country where most people could not read, since many older democracies had widened the vote only step by step. Finally, there is single citizenship: a person is a citizen of India, not of a State, which Part 2 examines.

ಇನ್ನು ಕೆಲವು ಲಕ್ಷಣಗಳು ಸುರಕ್ಷಾ ಕವಾಟಗಳು. ಚುನಾವಣಾ ಆಯೋಗ, ಸಿಎಜಿ, ಯುಪಿಎಸ್‌ಸಿ, ಹಣಕಾಸು ಆಯೋಗದಂತಹ ಸ್ವತಂತ್ರ ಸಂಸ್ಥೆಗಳನ್ನು ಸಂವಿಧಾನವೇ ಸೃಷ್ಟಿಸಿದೆ, ಆಡಳಿತದ ಸರ್ಕಾರದಿಂದ ರಕ್ಷಣೆ. ತುರ್ತು ಪರಿಸ್ಥಿತಿ ಉಪಬಂಧಗಳು: ಯುದ್ಧ, ಬಾಹ್ಯ ಆಕ್ರಮಣ, ಸಶಸ್ತ್ರ ದಂಗೆ (352), ರಾಜ್ಯದಲ್ಲಿ ಸಾಂವಿಧಾನಿಕ ಯಂತ್ರ ವಿಫಲ (356), ಆರ್ಥಿಕ ಸ್ಥಿರತೆಗೆ ಅಪಾಯ (360) — ಕೇಂದ್ರಕ್ಕೆ ಹೆಚ್ಚುವರಿ ಅಧಿಕಾರ; 1975–77ರ ನಂತರ 44ನೇ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ (1978) ಬಿಗಿಗೊಳಿಸಿತು. 73, 74ನೇ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿಗಳು (1992) ಪಂಚಾಯಿತಿ, ಪುರಸಭೆಗಳಿಗೆ ಭಾಗ IX, IXAಯಲ್ಲಿ ಸಾಂವಿಧಾನಿಕ ಸ್ಥಾನ — ಮೂರನೇ ಹಂತದ ಸರ್ಕಾರ. 97ನೇ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ (2011) ಸಹಕಾರ ಸಂಘಗಳ ಭಾಗ IXB; ಸುಪ್ರೀಂ ಕೋರ್ಟ್ (ರಾಜೇಂದ್ರ ಎನ್. ಶಾ, 2021) ಅದನ್ನು ಬಹುರಾಜ್ಯ ಸಂಘಗಳಿಗೆ ಸೀಮಿತಗೊಳಿಸಿತು. ಪ್ರೆಷರ್ ಕುಕ್ಕರ್‌ಗೆ ಸೀಟಿ ಇರುವಂತೆ. (→ English: Emergency · हिन्दी: आपात)

In exam EnglishOther features work as safety valves. Independent bodies such as the Election Commission, the Comptroller and Auditor-General, the Union Public Service Commission and the Finance Commission are created by the Constitution itself and shielded from the government of the day. Emergency provisions let the Centre take extra powers during war, external aggression or armed rebellion (Article 352), the failure of constitutional machinery in a State (Article 356) and a threat to financial stability (Article 360); the 44th Amendment (1978) tightened them after the Emergency of 1975–77. The 73rd and 74th Amendments (1992) created a third tier of government by giving panchayats and municipalities constitutional status in Parts IX and IXA. The 97th Amendment (2011) added Part IXB on co-operative societies, which the Supreme Court in Union of India v. Rajendra N. Shah (2021) confined to multi-State co-operative societies.

ವಿಧಿಗಳನ್ನು ವಿಷಯವಾರು ಭಾಗಗಳಾಗಿ ವಿಂಗಡಿಸಲಾಗಿದೆ; ಮುಖ್ಯ ಭಾಗಗಳು ತಿಳಿದರೆ ಯಾವ ವಿಧಿ ಎಲ್ಲಿದೆ ಎಂದು ತಿಳಿಯುತ್ತದೆ. I — ಒಕ್ಕೂಟ, ಪ್ರದೇಶ; II — ಪೌರತ್ವ; III — ಮೂಲಭೂತ ಹಕ್ಕುಗಳು; IV — ನಿರ್ದೇಶಕ ತತ್ವಗಳು; IVA — ಮೂಲಭೂತ ಕರ್ತವ್ಯಗಳು. V, VI — ಕೇಂದ್ರ, ರಾಜ್ಯ ಸರ್ಕಾರಗಳು; VIII — ಕೇಂದ್ರಾಡಳಿತ ಪ್ರದೇಶಗಳು; IX, IXA, IXB — ಪಂಚಾಯಿತಿ, ಪುರಸಭೆ, ಸಹಕಾರ ಸಂಘ. XI — ಕೇಂದ್ರ-ರಾಜ್ಯ ಸಂಬಂಧ; XII — ಹಣಕಾಸು, ಆಸ್ತಿ, ಒಪ್ಪಂದ; XIV — ಸೇವೆಗಳು; XIVA — ನ್ಯಾಯಮಂಡಳಿಗಳು; XV — ಚುನಾವಣೆ; XVIII — ತುರ್ತು ಉಪಬಂಧ; XX — ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ. ಹಳೆಯ ಭಾಗ B ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳ ಭಾಗ VII ಅನ್ನು 7ನೇ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ (1956) ರದ್ದುಪಡಿಸಿತು. ಗ್ರಂಥಾಲಯದಲ್ಲಿ ಪುಸ್ತಕಗಳನ್ನು ವಿಷಯವಾರು ಕಪಾಟುಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಇಡುವಂತೆ. (→ English: Part of the Constitution · हिन्दी: संविधान का भाग)

In exam EnglishThe Articles are grouped into Parts by subject, and knowing the main Parts makes any Article easier to place. Part I deals with the Union and its territory, Part II with citizenship, Part III with Fundamental Rights, Part IV with Directive Principles and Part IVA with Fundamental Duties. Parts V and VI set up the governments of the Union and the States, Part VIII covers Union Territories, and Parts IX, IXA and IXB cover panchayats, municipalities and co-operative societies. Part XI governs relations between the Union and the States, Part XII finance, property and contracts, Part XIV services, Part XIVA tribunals, Part XV elections, Part XVIII emergency provisions and Part XX amendment. Part VII, which dealt with the former Part B States, was repealed by the 7th Amendment (1956), when the old classes of States were abolished.
The 25 Parts of the Constitution (Part VII repealed in 1956)
PartArticlesSubject
I1–4Union and its territory
II5–11Citizenship
III12–35Fundamental Rights
IV36–51Directive Principles of State Policy
IVA51AFundamental Duties
V52–151The Union
VI152–237The States
VIII239–242Union Territories
IX243–243OPanchayats
IXA243P–243ZGMunicipalities
IXB243ZH–243ZTCo-operative societies
X244–244AScheduled and tribal areas
XI245–263Relations between the Union and the States
XII264–300AFinance, property, contracts and suits
XIII301–307Trade, commerce and intercourse within India
XIV308–323Services under the Union and the States
XIVA323A–323BTribunals
XV324–329Elections
XVI330–342ASpecial provisions for certain classes
XVII343–351Official language
XVIII352–360Emergency provisions
XIX361–367Miscellaneous
XX368Amendment of the Constitution
XXI369–392Temporary, transitional and special provisions
XXII393–395Short title, commencement, authoritative Hindi text and repeals

ವಿಧಿಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಜಟಿಲವಾಗುವ ಪಟ್ಟಿಗಳು, ವಿವರಗಳು ಅನುಸೂಚಿಗಳಲ್ಲಿ. ಮೂಲ ಎಂಟು: ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳು-ಪ್ರದೇಶಗಳು, ಉನ್ನತಾಧಿಕಾರಿಗಳ ವೇತನ, ಪ್ರಮಾಣ ನಮೂನೆ, ರಾಜ್ಯಸಭಾ ಸ್ಥಾನ, ಅನುಸೂಚಿತ ಪ್ರದೇಶ ಆಡಳಿತ, ಅಸ್ಸಾಂ-ಮೇಘಾಲಯ-ತ್ರಿಪುರಾ-ಮಿಜೋರಾಂ ಬುಡಕಟ್ಟು ಪ್ರದೇಶ, ಮೂರು ಶಾಸನ ಪಟ್ಟಿಗಳು, ಭಾಷೆಗಳು (ಈಗ 22). ನಂತರ ನಾಲ್ಕು: ಒಂಬತ್ತನೇ ಅನುಸೂಚಿ — 1ನೇ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ (1951), ಭೂಸುಧಾರಣಾ ಕಾನೂನುಗಳಿಗೆ ರಕ್ಷಣೆ; ಹತ್ತನೇ ಅನುಸೂಚಿ — 52ನೇ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ (1985), ಪಕ್ಷಾಂತರ ನಿಷೇಧ; ಹನ್ನೊಂದನೇ ಅನುಸೂಚಿ — 73ನೇ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ (1992), ಪಂಚಾಯಿತಿಗಳಿಗೆ 29 ವಿಷಯ; ಹನ್ನೆರಡನೆಯದು — 74ನೇ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ (1992), ಪುರಸಭೆಗಳಿಗೆ 18. ಒಂಬತ್ತನೇ ಅನುಸೂಚಿಯ ರಕ್ಷಣೆ ಸಂಪೂರ್ಣವಲ್ಲ: 24 ಏಪ್ರಿಲ್ 1973ರ ನಂತರ ಸೇರಿಸಿದ ಕಾನೂನುಗಳನ್ನು ಮೂಲ ರಚನೆಯ ಆಧಾರದಲ್ಲಿ ಪರೀಕ್ಷಿಸಬಹುದು (ಕೊಯೆಲ್ಹೊ, 2007). ಪುಸ್ತಕದ ಕೊನೆಯ ಅನುಬಂಧಗಳಂತೆ. (→ English: Schedule · हिन्दी: अनुसूची)

In exam EnglishThe Schedules hold lists and details that would clutter the Articles. The original eight covered the States and territories, the pay of high officials, the forms of oaths, the allocation of Rajya Sabha seats, the administration of Scheduled Areas, tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram, the three legislative lists, and the languages, now 22. Four were added later, each by a well-known amendment: the Ninth Schedule by the 1st Amendment (1951) to shield land-reform laws from challenge, the Tenth Schedule by the 52nd Amendment (1985) on anti-defection, the Eleventh Schedule by the 73rd Amendment (1992) with 29 subjects for panchayats, and the Twelfth Schedule by the 74th Amendment (1992) with 18 subjects for municipalities. The Ninth Schedule's shield is not absolute: laws placed in it after 24 April 1973 can be tested against the basic structure (I.R. Coelho, 2007).
The twelve Schedules
ScheduleContents
FirstStates and Union Territories, with their territories
SecondPay and allowances of the President, Governors, presiding officers, judges and the CAG
ThirdForms of oaths and affirmations
FourthAllocation of Rajya Sabha seats to States and Union Territories
FifthAdministration of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes
SixthTribal areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram
SeventhUnion, State and Concurrent Lists
EighthLanguages (22 at present)
NinthLaws protected from challenge (1st Amendment, 1951)
TenthDisqualification on ground of defection (52nd Amendment, 1985)
Eleventh29 subjects for panchayats (73rd Amendment, 1992)
Twelfth18 subjects for municipalities (74th Amendment, 1992)

ಟೀಕೆಗಳು: ಎರವಲು ಸಂವಿಧಾನ, 1935ರ ಕಾಯ್ದೆಯ ನಕಲು, ಹಳ್ಳಿ ಸಂಪ್ರದಾಯಗಳಿಂದ ಕಡಿಮೆ ಪಡೆದದ್ದರಿಂದ ಭಾರತೀಯವಲ್ಲ, ಉದ್ದ ಮತ್ತು ಕಾನೂನು ಭಾಷೆಯಿಂದ 'ವಕೀಲರ ಸ್ವರ್ಗ'. ಸಂವಿಧಾನ ರಚನಾ ಸಭೆಯ ಸದಸ್ಯರ ಉತ್ತರ: ಪರೀಕ್ಷಿತ ವಿಚಾರಗಳನ್ನು ಸ್ವೀಕರಿಸುವುದು ಜಾಣತನ, 1935ರ ಕಾಯ್ದೆಯ ಯಂತ್ರ ಪರಿಚಿತ ಮತ್ತು ಕಾರ್ಯಸಾಧ್ಯ; ಉದ್ದೇಶ ವಿದೇಶಿ ಮಾದರಿಗಳಿಂದಲ್ಲ, ಸ್ವಾತಂತ್ರ್ಯ ಹೋರಾಟದಿಂದ. ಎಲ್ಲ ಸೇರಿಸಿ ನೋಡಿದರೆ ಒಂದೇ ಕಥೆ: ವೈವಿಧ್ಯಮಯ ದೇಶವನ್ನು ಒಟ್ಟಿಗಿಡುವ ಬಲಿಷ್ಠ ಕೇಂದ್ರ, ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯ ಕಾಯುವ ಹಕ್ಕುಗಳು, ಸರ್ಕಾರಗಳಿಗೆ ದಾರಿ ತೋರುವ ಸಾಮಾಜಿಕ ಗುರಿಗಳು, ತಿರುಳು ಕಳೆದುಕೊಳ್ಳದೆ ಬದಲಾಗುವ ನಮ್ಯತೆ. ಮೂಲಗಳು ಪ್ರತಿ ತುಣುಕು ಎಲ್ಲಿಂದ, ಭಾಗಗಳು-ಅನುಸೂಚಿಗಳು ಅದು ಈಗ ಎಲ್ಲಿದೆ ಎಂದು ತೋರಿಸುತ್ತವೆ. ಭಾಗ 2: ಇದೆಲ್ಲ ಯಾರಿಗಾಗಿ — ಭಾರತದ ನಾಗರಿಕರು. ಇದೇ ನಮ್ಮ ಸಂವಿಧಾನ. (→ English: Constitution · हिन्दी: संविधान)

In exam EnglishCritics have called the Constitution a borrowed document, a copy of the 1935 Act, un-Indian because it drew little on village traditions, and a lawyers' paradise because of its length and legal language. In the Constituent Assembly, members answered that adopting tested ideas was sensible, that the 1935 Act's administrative machinery was familiar and workable, and that the document's purpose came from the freedom struggle rather than from foreign models. Taken together, the features tell one story: a democracy that wanted a strong Centre to hold a diverse country together, rights that courts protect, social goals that guide governments, and enough flexibility to change with the times without losing its core. The sources explain where each piece came from, and the Parts and Schedules show where it now sits. Part 2 turns to the people for whom all this was written: the citizens of India.

Exam traps

Recap

Practice questions

Q1. The idea of the Directive Principles of State Policy in the Constitution of India was borrowed from the Constitution of

  1. the United States
  2. Ireland
  3. Canada
  4. the former USSR
Show answer

Answer: B. Ireland

Directive Principles were modelled on the Irish Constitution. The United States gave Fundamental Rights and judicial review, Canada a federation with a strong Centre, and the former USSR the Fundamental Duties.

Q2. Consider the following statements:
1. As originally adopted, the Constitution of India had 395 Articles in 22 Parts and 8 Schedules.
2. The Tenth Schedule was added by the Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is wrong: the 1st Amendment added the Ninth Schedule; the Tenth (anti-defection) came with the 52nd Amendment in 1985. So '2 only' and 'Both' are wrong, and 'Neither' ignores statement 1.

Q3. Match List I with List II:
List I (Schedule) — List II (Content)
A. Fourth Schedule — 1. Languages
B. Sixth Schedule — 2. Allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha
C. Eighth Schedule — 3. Subjects for panchayats
D. Eleventh Schedule — 4. Tribal areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

  1. A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
  2. A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3
  3. A-2, B-4, C-3, D-1
  4. A-1, B-4, C-2, D-3
Show answer

Answer: A. A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3

The Fourth Schedule allocates Rajya Sabha seats, the Sixth covers tribal areas of the four north-eastern States, the Eighth lists languages and the Eleventh lists panchayat subjects. The second option swaps the Fourth and Sixth, the third swaps the Eighth and Eleventh, and the fourth swaps the Fourth and Eighth.

Q4. Consider the following statements:
1. Article 1 of the Constitution describes India as a 'Union of States'.
2. A single citizenship and an integrated judiciary are among the unitary features of the Constitution.
3. The word 'federation' is used in Article 1 to describe India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 1 and 2 only
  3. 2 and 3 only
  4. 1, 2 and 3
Show answer

Answer: B. 1 and 2 only

Statements 1 and 2 are correct. Statement 3 is wrong: the Constitution never uses the word 'federation'; Ambedkar explained that the Union did not result from an agreement among the States. '1 only' misses statement 2, and the options containing 3 are wrong.

Q5. Which one of the following can be done by Parliament by a simple majority, without an amendment under Article 368?

  1. Changing the manner of election of the President
  2. Abolishing the Legislative Council of a State
  3. Changing the distribution of legislative powers between the Union and the States
  4. Abridging a Fundamental Right
Show answer

Answer: B. Abolishing the Legislative Council of a State

Article 169 lets Parliament create or abolish a Legislative Council by law, on the State Assembly's resolution, and says such a law is not an amendment under Article 368. The President's election and the distribution of legislative powers need a special majority plus ratification by half the States, and abridging a Fundamental Right needs a special majority under Article 368.

Q6. Consider the following statements:
1. The voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 years by the Constitution (Sixty-first Amendment) Act, 1988.
2. The word 'secular' has been part of the Preamble since the Constitution came into force in 1950.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is wrong: 'secular' was added to the Preamble by the 42nd Amendment in 1976, though the idea runs through Articles 25–28 from the start. So '2 only' and 'Both' are wrong, and 'Neither' ignores statement 1.

Q7. Consider the following statements:
1. Fundamental Duties were added to the Constitution as Part IVA by the 42nd Amendment, 1976.
2. The Directive Principles of State Policy can be enforced by the courts.
3. Under Article 75(3), the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 1 and 3 only
  3. 2 and 3 only
  4. 1, 2 and 3
Show answer

Answer: B. 1 and 3 only

Statements 1 and 3 are correct. Statement 2 is wrong: Article 37 says the Directive Principles shall not be enforceable by any court, though they are fundamental in governance. '1 only' misses statement 3, and the options containing 2 are wrong.

Q8. With reference to the Ninth Schedule, consider the following statements:
1. It was added by the Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951.
2. According to I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu (2007), laws placed in it after 24 April 1973 can be tested against the basic structure.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: C. Both 1 and 2

Both are correct: the 1st Amendment created the Ninth Schedule to protect land-reform laws, and Coelho held that laws added after the Kesavananda Bharati judgment of 24 April 1973 are open to basic-structure review. '1 only' and '2 only' each miss a correct statement, and 'Neither' misses both.

All parts

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Sources