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The sixteen Mahajanapadas and the rise of Magadha

ಕನ್ನಡದಲ್ಲಿ ವಿವರಣೆ

The Mahajanapadas, Buddhism and Jainism · Part 1 / 3 · Fact-checked on 8 November 2026 · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

Sources for the sixth to fourth centuries BCE; the second urbanisation with iron, rice, Northern Black Polished Ware, punch-marked coins, routes and guilds; the sixteen Mahajanapadas and their capitals; Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti and Magadha; gana-sanghas and the Vajjis; why Magadha rose; the Haryanka, Shishunaga and Nanda dynasties; and the Persian and Macedonian invasions of the northwest.

Each idea is explained first in Kannada (ಕನ್ನಡ), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Kannada and revise it in English.

ಕ್ರಿ.ಪೂ. ಆರನೇ ಶತಮಾನದ ಹೊತ್ತಿಗೆ ಹಳ್ಳಿಗಳು ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳಾದವು — ಗಡಿ, ರಾಜಧಾನಿ, ಸೈನ್ಯ, ತೆರಿಗೆ, ವ್ಯಾಪಾರಿಗಳಿಂದ ತುಂಬಿದ ಪಟ್ಟಣಗಳು. ಬೌದ್ಧ ಗ್ರಂಥಗಳು ಹದಿನಾರು ದೊಡ್ಡ ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳನ್ನು ನೆನಪಿಸುತ್ತವೆ — ಪ್ರತಿಯೊಂದೂ ಒಂದು ಮಹಾಜನಪದ. ಸಣ್ಣ ಅಂಗಡಿಗಳು ದೊಡ್ಡದಾಗಿ, ಕೊನೆಗೆ ಒಂದೇ ದೊಡ್ಡ ಕಂಪನಿ ಎಲ್ಲವನ್ನೂ ಕೊಂಡಂತೆ — ಮಗಧ ಉಳಿದವನ್ನು ಸೇರಿಸಿಕೊಂಡು ಮೌರ್ಯ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯಕ್ಕೆ ಅಡಿಪಾಯ ಹಾಕಿತು. ಇದೇ ಕಾಲದಲ್ಲಿ ಬುದ್ಧ, ಮಹಾವೀರರು ಬೋಧಿಸಿದರು. (→ English: mahajanapada · Magadha · हिन्दी: महाजनपद · मगध)

In exam EnglishBy the sixth century BCE the villages of the Later Vedic period had grown into something new: states with fixed borders, capitals, armies and taxes, and towns full of traders and craftsmen. Buddhist texts remember sixteen large states of this time, each a mahajanapada, 'great janapada'. Within two centuries one of them, Magadha in south Bihar, swallowed its rivals and laid the base for India's first empire under the Mauryas. The same towns and courts heard the Buddha, Mahavira and other teachers who questioned Vedic ritual. This chapter has three parts. Part 1 covers the states, the economy that supported them, the rise of Magadha, and the Persian and Macedonian invasions of the northwest. Part 2 is on Buddhism and Part 3 on Jainism and the other new schools.

ಈ ಕಾಲದ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಹಲವು ಬಗೆಯ ಸಾಕ್ಷ್ಯಗಳಿವೆ; ಅವು ಯಾವಾಗಲೂ ಒಂದೇ ಹೇಳುವುದಿಲ್ಲ. ಬೌದ್ಧ ಗ್ರಂಥ ಅಂಗುತ್ತರ ನಿಕಾಯ ಹದಿನಾರು ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳ ಪ್ರಸಿದ್ಧ ಪಟ್ಟಿ ಕೊಡುತ್ತದೆ; ಜೈನ ಭಗವತೀ ಸೂತ್ರವೂ ಹದಿನಾರು ಎನ್ನುತ್ತದೆ, ಆದರೆ ಹೆಸರುಗಳು ಬೇರೆ — ಒಂದೇ ಊರಿನ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಇಬ್ಬರು ಸಂಬಂಧಿಕರು ತಮ್ಮ ತಮ್ಮ ಬೀದಿಯಿಂದ ನೋಡಿ ಹೇಳಿದಂತೆ. ಪುರಾಣಗಳು, ಪಾಣಿನಿ, ಗ್ರೀಕ್ ಲೇಖಕರೂ ಹೇಳುತ್ತಾರೆ. ರಾಜಗೀರ್, ವೈಶಾಲಿ, ಕೌಶಾಂಬಿ, ಉಜ್ಜಯಿನಿಯ ಉತ್ಖನನಗಳು ಕೋಟೆಗೋಡೆ, ನಾಣ್ಯ, ಮಡಿಕೆಗಳನ್ನು ತೋರಿಸುತ್ತವೆ. (→ English: Anguttara Nikaya · Bhagavati Sutra · हिन्दी: अंगुत्तर निकाय · भगवती सूत्र)

In exam EnglishOur picture of this age is drawn from several kinds of evidence, and they do not always agree. The Anguttara Nikaya, a Buddhist text in Pali, gives the best-known list of sixteen states. The Jain Bhagavati Sutra also lists sixteen, but many of its names differ, a reminder that each tradition saw the map from its own region. The Puranas give lines of kings, the grammarian Panini mentions many janapadas and their people, and Greek writers who followed Alexander describe the northwest and a powerful kingdom on the Ganga. Archaeology adds what texts leave out: town walls, houses, drains, coins and pottery at sites such as Rajgir, Vaishali, Kaushambi and Ujjain. Because the Buddhist and Jain texts were written down centuries later, historians treat their dates and numbers with care.

ಹೊಸ ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳ ಹಿಂದೆ ಹೊಸ ಆರ್ಥಿಕತೆ — ಇದನ್ನು ಎರಡನೇ ನಗರೀಕರಣ ಎನ್ನುತ್ತಾರೆ (ಮೊದಲನೆಯದು ಹರಪ್ಪ). ಕಬ್ಬಿಣದ ಕೊಡಲಿ, ನೇಗಿಲ ಕುಳದಿಂದ ಕಾಡು ಕಡಿದು, ಫಲವತ್ತಾದ ಮಣ್ಣಿನಲ್ಲಿ ಭತ್ತ ಬೆಳೆದು ಹೆಚ್ಚುವರಿ ಧಾನ್ಯ ಬಂತು — ಆ ಹೆಚ್ಚುವರಿಯಿಂದ ರಾಜರು, ಸೈನಿಕರು, ಪಟ್ಟಣವಾಸಿಗಳು ಬದುಕಿದರು. ಪಟ್ಟಣಗಳ ವಿಶೇಷ ಮಡಿಕೆ ಉತ್ತರದ ಕಪ್ಪು ಹೊಳಪಿನ ಮಡಿಕೆಗಳು. ಮೊದಲ ನಾಣ್ಯಗಳು ಮುದ್ರೆಯೊತ್ತಿದ ನಾಣ್ಯಗಳು — ಬೆಳ್ಳಿಯ ಮೇಲೆ ಸೂರ್ಯ, ಪ್ರಾಣಿ ಚಿಹ್ನೆ, ಇಂದು ಬ್ರ್ಯಾಂಡ್ ಲೋಗೋ ಒತ್ತಿದಂತೆ. ಉತ್ತರಾಪಥ, ದಕ್ಷಿಣಾಪಥ ದಾರಿಗಳು; ಸೆಟ್ಟಿ, ಗಹಪತಿ, ಶ್ರೇಣಿ. (→ English: urbanisation · Northern Black Polished Ware · punch-marked coins · हिन्दी: नगरीकरण · उत्तरी काली पॉलिशदार मृद्भांड · आहत सिक्के)

In exam EnglishBehind the new states lay a new economy, often called the second urbanisation, the first being the Harappan. Iron axes and ploughshares made it easier to clear the thick forest of the middle Ganga plain, and wet rice grown in its rich soil produced a surplus that could feed kings, soldiers, priests and town dwellers. Towns such as Rajagriha, Shravasti, Kaushambi, Varanasi and Ujjayini grew up as capitals and markets. Their typical luxury pottery is Northern Black Polished Ware, a thin, glossy black ware. Trade used the first Indian coins, punch-marked coins, mostly of silver, stamped with symbols such as the sun, animals and trees. Merchants travelled along the Uttarapatha, the northern route to Taxila, and the Dakshinapatha towards the south. Buddhist texts speak of the wealthy setthi, or merchant, the gahapati, a rich landholding householder, and of craftsmen organised in guilds called shreni.

ಹದಿನಾರು ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳು ವಾಯುವ್ಯದ ಗಾಂಧಾರದಿಂದ ಪೂರ್ವದ ಅಂಗದವರೆಗೆ. ಹೆಚ್ಚಿನವು ಗಂಗಾ ಕಣಿವೆಯಲ್ಲಿ — ಕಾಶಿ, ಕೋಸಲ, ಮಗಧ, ಅಂಗ, ವಜ್ಜಿ, ಮಲ್ಲ; ಪಶ್ಚಿಮಕ್ಕೆ ಕುರು, ಪಾಂಚಾಲ, ವತ್ಸ, ಶೂರಸೇನ, ಮತ್ಸ್ಯ. ಅವಂತಿ, ಚೇದಿ ಮಧ್ಯ ಭಾರತದಲ್ಲಿ; ಗೋದಾವರಿ ದಡದ ಅಶ್ಮಕ ಒಂದೇ ವಿಂಧ್ಯದ ದಕ್ಷಿಣಕ್ಕೆ — ನಮ್ಮ ದಕ್ಷಿಣಕ್ಕೆ ಹತ್ತಿರ. ಕೆಲವಕ್ಕೆ ಎರಡು ರಾಜಧಾನಿ — ಪಾಂಚಾಲಕ್ಕೆ ಅಹಿಚ್ಛತ್ರ, ಕಾಂಪಿಲ್ಯ; ಅವಂತಿಗೆ ಉಜ್ಜಯಿನಿ, ಮಾಹಿಷ್ಮತಿ. ವಜ್ಜಿ, ಮಲ್ಲ ರಾಜನಿಲ್ಲದ ಗಣರಾಜ್ಯಗಳು. (→ English: sixteen mahajanapadas · Ashmaka · हिन्दी: सोलह महाजनपद · अश्मक)

In exam EnglishThe sixteen states stretched from Gandhara in the far northwest to Anga in the east. Most lay in the Ganga basin: Kashi, Kosala, Magadha, Anga, Vajji and Malla in the middle and lower plain, and Kuru, Panchala, Vatsa, Shurasena and Matsya further west. Avanti and Chedi lay in central India, Gandhara and Kamboja in the northwest, and Ashmaka, on the Godavari, was the only one south of the Vindhyas. Several states had two capitals because they were divided: Panchala had Ahichchhatra in the north and Kampilya in the south, and Avanti had Ujjayini and Mahishmati. Not all sixteen were kingdoms. Vajji and Malla were ruled by assemblies of clan heads, a form explained later in this part. The table lists the states with their capitals; matching a state with its capital is a favourite Prelims format.

The sixteen Mahajanapadas and their capitals (Anguttara Nikaya list)
Mahajanapada	Capital
Anga	Champa
Magadha	Rajagriha (Girivraja), later Pataliputra
Kashi	Varanasi
Kosala	Shravasti
Vajji	Vaishali
Malla	Kushinara and Pava
Chedi	Shuktimati
Vatsa	Kaushambi
Kuru	Indraprastha
Panchala	Ahichchhatra (north), Kampilya (south)
Matsya	Viratanagara
Shurasena	Mathura
Ashmaka	Potana, on the Godavari
Avanti	Ujjayini (north), Mahishmati (south)
Gandhara	Taxila
Kamboja	Rajapura

ನಾಲ್ಕು ದೊಡ್ಡ ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳು ಪ್ರಾಬಲ್ಯಕ್ಕಾಗಿ ಸ್ಪರ್ಧಿಸಿದವು: ಕೋಸಲ (ಶ್ರಾವಸ್ತಿ, ರಾಜ ಪ್ರಸೇನಜಿತ್, ಕಾಶಿಯನ್ನು ಸೇರಿಸಿಕೊಂಡಿತು), ವತ್ಸ (ಕೌಶಾಂಬಿ, ಉದಯನ), ಅವಂತಿ (ಉಜ್ಜಯಿನಿ, ಚಂಡ ಪ್ರದ್ಯೋತ), ಮಗಧ (ಬಿಂಬಿಸಾರ, ಅಜಾತಶತ್ರು). ಯುದ್ಧ ಮಾತ್ರವಲ್ಲ, ಮದುವೆ ಸಂಬಂಧ, ರಾಜತಂತ್ರವೂ — ಬಿಂಬಿಸಾರ ಕೋಸಲದ ರಾಜಕುಮಾರಿಯನ್ನು ಮದುವೆಯಾಗಿ ಕಾಶಿಯ ಒಂದು ಹಳ್ಳಿಯನ್ನು ವರದಕ್ಷಿಣೆಯಾಗಿ ಪಡೆದ, ವೈದ್ಯ ಜೀವಕನನ್ನು ಪ್ರದ್ಯೋತನ ಬಳಿ ಕಳಿಸಿದ. ಎರಡು ದೊಡ್ಡ ಮನೆತನಗಳು ಬೀಗತನ ಬೆಳೆಸಿ ಜಗಳ ಕಡಿಮೆ ಮಾಡಿಕೊಂಡಂತೆ. ಕೊನೆಗೆ ಮಗಧ ಗೆದ್ದಿತು. (→ English: Kosala · Vatsa · Avanti · Magadha · हिन्दी: कोसल · वत्स · अवंति · मगध)

In exam EnglishFour kingdoms stood out and fought one another for supremacy. Kosala, with its capital at Shravasti, was ruled in the Buddha's time by Prasenajit and had absorbed Kashi. Vatsa, centred on Kaushambi on the Yamuna, was ruled by Udayana, a king remembered in later stories and plays. Avanti, under Chanda Pradyota at Ujjayini, controlled routes into central and western India and was feared even by Magadha. Magadha itself, under Bimbisara and then Ajatashatru, was the fourth. Their rivalry was handled by war, but also by marriage and diplomacy. Bimbisara married a Kosalan princess and received a Kashi village as dowry, and he sent his physician Jivaka to treat Pradyota. Over the next two centuries Magadha won this contest, absorbing Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti one after another.

ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳ ಜೊತೆಗೆ ಗಣ-ಸಂಘ ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳೂ ಇದ್ದವು — ಒಬ್ಬ ರಾಜನಲ್ಲ, ಮುಖ್ಯ ಕುಲಗಳ ಮುಖಂಡರ ಸಭೆ ಆಳುತ್ತಿತ್ತು. ಸಂಥಾಗಾರ ಎಂಬ ಸಭಾಭವನದಲ್ಲಿ ಕುಳಿತು ಯುದ್ಧ, ಶಾಂತಿ, ನ್ಯಾಯ ನಿರ್ಧರಿಸುತ್ತಿದ್ದರು — ಊರಿನ ಹಿರಿಯರು ಅರಳಿಕಟ್ಟೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಕೂತು ನ್ಯಾಯ ಹೇಳಿದಂತೆ. ಪ್ರಸಿದ್ಧವಾದದ್ದು ವಜ್ಜಿ ಸಂಘ (ವೈಶಾಲಿ, ಲಿಚ್ಛವಿಗಳು); ಮಲ್ಲರು, ಶಾಕ್ಯರು (ಬುದ್ಧನ ಕುಲ) ಕೂಡ. ಆದರೆ ಇದು ಇಂದಿನ ಪ್ರಜಾಪ್ರಭುತ್ವವಲ್ಲ — ಕೂಲಿಯವರಿಗೆ, ದಾಸರಿಗೆ ಧ್ವನಿಯಿಲ್ಲ. ಒಟ್ಟಿಗೆ ಕೂತು ನಿರ್ಧರಿಸುವವರೆಗೆ ವಜ್ಜಿಗಳು ಅವನತಿ ಹೊಂದರು ಎಂದು ಬುದ್ಧ ಹೇಳಿದ. (→ English: gana-sangha · Vajji · santhagara · हिन्दी: गण-संघ · वज्जि · संथागार)

In exam EnglishAlongside the kingdoms were the gana-sangha states, where power belonged not to a single hereditary king but to a gathering of the chiefs of the leading clans. Each head could be called raja, and the assembly met in a hall known as the santhagara to discuss and decide matters of war, peace and justice. The best known was the Vajji confederacy, with its capital at Vaishali, in which the Lichchhavis were the leading clan; others were the Mallas of Kushinara and Pava and the Shakyas of Kapilavastu, the Buddha's own people. These states were not democracies in the modern sense: power lay with clan elites, and labourers and slaves had no voice. Buddhist tradition records that when Ajatashatru planned to attack the Vajjis, the Buddha said they would not decline so long as they met often, decided together and respected their elders and customs.

ಕೋಸಲ, ಅವಂತಿ ಅಲ್ಲ, ಮಗಧವೇ ಯಾಕೆ ಗೆದ್ದಿತು? ಭೌಗೋಳಿಕ ಬಲ: ಫಲವತ್ತಾದ ಮೆಕ್ಕಲು ಮಣ್ಣು, ಭತ್ತದ ಹೆಚ್ಚುವರಿ, ಹತ್ತಿರದಲ್ಲೇ ಕಬ್ಬಿಣದ ಅದಿರು, ಗಂಗಾ-ಸೋನ್-ಗಂಡಕ್ ನದಿಗಳು ವ್ಯಾಪಾರ ಮತ್ತು ರಕ್ಷಣೆಗೆ, ಕಾಡುಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಯುದ್ಧಕ್ಕೆ ಆನೆಗಳು. ರಾಜಗೃಹದ ಸುತ್ತ ಐದು ಬೆಟ್ಟಗಳು; ಪಾಟಲಿಪುತ್ರ ಸೋನ್-ಗಂಗಾ ಸಂಗಮದ ಜಲದುರ್ಗ. ಒಂದು ದಿನಸಿ ಅಂಗಡಿ ರೈಲು ನಿಲ್ದಾಣದ ಪಕ್ಕ, ಗೋದಾಮು ಹತ್ತಿರವೇ ಇದ್ದರೆ ಉಳಿದ ಅಂಗಡಿಗಳನ್ನು ಹಿಂದಿಕ್ಕಿದಂತೆ. ವೈದಿಕ ಕಟ್ಟುಪಾಡು ಕಡಿಮೆ, ಮಹತ್ವಾಕಾಂಕ್ಷಿ ಕಠಿಣ ರಾಜರೂ. (→ English: rise of Magadha · Rajagriha · Pataliputra · हिन्दी: मगध का उदय · राजगृह · पाटलिपुत्र)

In exam EnglishWhy did Magadha, rather than Kosala or Avanti, win? Geography gave it a head start. It sat on the fertile alluvial plain of south Bihar, where rice yielded large surpluses that could be taxed. Rich iron ores lay close by in the hills to its south, so it could equip soldiers and farmers with iron. The Ganga, Son and Gandak rivers carried trade and protected it, and the forests nearby supplied elephants, which Magadha was among the first to use on a large scale in war. Its first capital, Rajagriha, was ringed by five hills and stone walls, and its later capital, Pataliputra, stood where the Son meets the Ganga, a natural water fort. Magadhan society was also less bound by Vedic orthodoxy. Finally, it had a line of ambitious and ruthless rulers who used war, marriage and intrigue to expand.

ಮಗಧದ ಮೊದಲ ಬಲಿಷ್ಠ ವಂಶ ಹರ್ಯಂಕ. ಬುದ್ಧ, ಮಹಾವೀರ ಇಬ್ಬರ ಸಮಕಾಲೀನ ಬಿಂಬಿಸಾರ — ಯುದ್ಧದ ಜೊತೆಗೆ ಮದುವೆಗಳಿಂದಲೂ ಬಲ ಹೆಚ್ಚಿಸಿದ: ಕೋಸಲ ರಾಣಿ, ಲಿಚ್ಛವಿ ರಾಜಕುಮಾರಿ ಚೆಲ್ಲನಾ, ಮದ್ರ ರಾಜಕುಮಾರಿ. ಅಂಗವನ್ನು ಗೆದ್ದು ಚಂಪಾ ಬಂದರು ಪಡೆದ. ಮಗ ಅಜಾತಶತ್ರು (ಪರಂಪರೆಯ ಪ್ರಕಾರ ತಂದೆಯನ್ನು ಕೊಂದು) ರಾಜನಾದ; ಕೋಸಲ, ವಜ್ಜಿಗಳೊಂದಿಗೆ ಯುದ್ಧ; ಜೈನ ಗ್ರಂಥಗಳ ಪ್ರಕಾರ ಕಲ್ಲೆಸೆಯುವ ಮಹಾಶಿಲಾಕಂಟಕ, ಗದೆ ಕಟ್ಟಿದ ರಥ ರಥಮುಸಲ — ಆ ಕಾಲದ ಹೊಸ ಆಯುಧಗಳು. ಉದಯಿನ್ ಗಂಗಾ-ಸೋನ್ ಸಂಗಮದಲ್ಲಿ ಪಾಟಲಿಪುತ್ರ ಕಟ್ಟಿದ. (→ English: Haryanka · Bimbisara · Ajatashatru · Udayin · हिन्दी: हर्यंक · बिंबिसार · अजातशत्रु · उदयिन)

In exam EnglishThe first strong dynasty of Magadha was the Haryanka. Bimbisara, a contemporary of both the Buddha and Mahavira, built power through marriage as much as war: besides his Kosalan queen he married Chellana, a Lichchhavi princess, and a princess of Madra in the Punjab, which secured his borders. He conquered Anga in the east, gaining its port of Champa and the river trade of the lower Ganga. His son Ajatashatru seized the throne, by tradition killing his father, and pursued a far more aggressive policy. He fought Kosala and, after a long war, defeated the Vajji confederacy; Jain texts credit him with new war engines, the mahashilakantaka, which hurled stones, and the rathamusala, a chariot fitted with maces. He also fortified a village on the Ganga, Pataligrama. His successor Udayin built a new capital there, Pataliputra, at the meeting of the Ganga and the Son.

ಹರ್ಯಂಕರ ನಂತರ ಶಿಶುನಾಗ ವಂಶ — ಶಿಶುನಾಗ ಅವಂತಿಯ ಶಕ್ತಿ ಮುರಿದು ಮಗಧದೊಂದಿಗಿನ ಅದರ ಹಳೆಯ ಸ್ಪರ್ಧೆಗೆ ಕೊನೆ ಹಾಡಿದ; ಸ್ವಲ್ಪ ಕಾಲ ರಾಜಧಾನಿಯನ್ನು ವೈಶಾಲಿಗೆ ಸ್ಥಳಾಂತರಿಸಿದನೆನ್ನುತ್ತಾರೆ. ಕಾಲಾಶೋಕ ಎರಡನೇ ಬೌದ್ಧ ಸಂಗೀತಿಯ ಪೋಷಕ. ನಂತರ ನಂದರು — ಮಹಾಪದ್ಮ ನಂದನನ್ನು ಪುರಾಣಗಳು 'ಸರ್ವಕ್ಷತ್ರಾಂತಕ', 'ಏಕರಾಟ್' ಎನ್ನುತ್ತವೆ. ನಂದರು ಅಪಾರ ಸಂಪತ್ತು ಮತ್ತು ದೊಡ್ಡ ಸೈನ್ಯಕ್ಕೆ ಹೆಸರಾದವರು — ತೆರಿಗೆ ಚೆನ್ನಾಗಿ ವಸೂಲಿ ಮಾಡಿ ಖಜಾನೆ ತುಂಬಿಸಿದ ದೊಡ್ಡ ಜಮೀನ್ದಾರನಂತೆ. ಕೊನೆಯ ರಾಜ ಧನನಂದನನ್ನು ಚಾಣಕ್ಯನ ನೆರವಿನಿಂದ ಚಂದ್ರಗುಪ್ತ ಮೌರ್ಯ ಸುಮಾರು ಕ್ರಿ.ಪೂ. 321ರಲ್ಲಿ ಕೆಳಗಿಳಿಸಿದ. (→ English: Shishunaga · Nanda · Mahapadma Nanda · हिन्दी: शिशुनाग · नंद · महापद्म नंद)

In exam EnglishThe Haryankas were followed by the Shishunaga dynasty, founded by Shishunaga, who is credited with destroying the power of Avanti and ending its long rivalry with Magadha; he is also said to have moved the capital for a time to Vaishali. His successor Kalashoka is remembered in Buddhist tradition as the patron of the second Buddhist council at Vaishali. Then came the Nandas, Magadha's most powerful rulers before the Mauryas. Their founder, Mahapadma Nanda, is called in the Puranas 'sarva-kshatrantaka', destroyer of all Kshatriyas, and ekarat, sole sovereign, which suggests he overthrew many older ruling houses. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela later recalls a Nanda king's link with Kalinga. The Nandas were famous for their wealth, built up through efficient taxation, and for a huge army. The last of them, Dhana Nanda, was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya with Chanakya's help, around 321 BCE.

Dynasties of Magadha before the Mauryas
Dynasty	Key rulers	Remember for
Haryanka	Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Udayin	Anga conquered; Vajjis defeated; Pataliputra founded
Shishunaga	Shishunaga, Kalashoka	Avanti destroyed; second Buddhist council
Nanda	Mahapadma Nanda, Dhana Nanda	Great wealth and army; ended by Chandragupta Maurya

ಪೂರ್ವದಲ್ಲಿ ಮಗಧ ಬೆಳೆಯುತ್ತಿದ್ದಾಗ ವಾಯುವ್ಯ ಸಣ್ಣ ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳಾಗಿ ಹರಿದುಹಂಚಿತ್ತು — ವಿದೇಶಿ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯದ ಕೈ ಸೇರಿತು. ಪರ್ಷಿಯನ್ ರಾಜ ಡೇರಿಯಸ್ I ಕ್ರಿ.ಪೂ. ಆರನೇ ಶತಮಾನದ ಕೊನೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಗಾಂಧಾರ, ಸಿಂಧೂ ಪ್ರದೇಶ (ಹಿಂದುಷ್) ಸೇರಿಸಿಕೊಂಡ. ಹೆರೊಡೋಟಸ್ ಪ್ರಕಾರ ಈ ಭಾರತೀಯ ಪ್ರಾಂತ್ಯ ಎಲ್ಲಕ್ಕಿಂತ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಕಪ್ಪ — ಚಿನ್ನದ ಪುಡಿಯಲ್ಲಿ — ಕೊಟ್ಟಿತು. ಬಿಡಿ ಕಡ್ಡಿಗಳು ಸುಲಭವಾಗಿ ಮುರಿಯುತ್ತವೆ ಎಂಬ ಕಥೆಯಂತೆ. ಫಲ: ಪರ್ಷಿಯನ್ ಅಧಿಕಾರಿಗಳ ಅರಾಮಿಕ್ ಲಿಪಿಯಿಂದ ಬಲದಿಂದ ಎಡಕ್ಕೆ ಬರೆಯುವ ಖರೋಷ್ಠಿ ಲಿಪಿ ಹುಟ್ಟಿತು; ತಕ್ಷಶಿಲೆಯ ಮೂಲಕ ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಏಷ್ಯಾದೊಂದಿಗೆ ಸಂಪರ್ಕ. (→ English: Achaemenid · Darius I · Kharoshthi · हिन्दी: हख़ामनी · दारा प्रथम · खरोष्ठी)

In exam EnglishWhile Magadha grew in the east, the northwest was split among small kingdoms and tribes, and it fell to a foreign empire. The Achaemenid Persian king Darius I, in the late sixth century BCE, added Gandhara and the Indus region, called Hindush, to his empire; his inscriptions name both among his lands. The Greek historian Herodotus reports that this Indian province paid the largest tribute of any, in gold dust, and Indian soldiers later served in Persian armies. Persian rule lasted until the empire fell to Alexander. It left lasting marks. The Kharoshthi script, written from right to left and used in the northwest for centuries, grew out of the Aramaic script used by Persian officials, and contact through Taxila linked Indian traders and scholars with western Asia.

ಪರ್ಷಿಯನ್ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ಗೆದ್ದ ನಂತರ ಅಲೆಕ್ಸಾಂಡರ್ ಕ್ರಿ.ಪೂ. 326ರಲ್ಲಿ ಪಂಜಾಬಿಗೆ ಬಂದ. ತಕ್ಷಶಿಲೆಯ ರಾಜ ಅಂಭಿ ಶರಣಾಗಿ ನೆರವಾದ; ಪೋರಸ್ ಎದುರಿಸಿದ — ಝೇಲಂ (ಹೈಡಾಸ್ಪಿಸ್) ಯುದ್ಧ. ಅಲೆಕ್ಸಾಂಡರ್ ಗೆದ್ದರೂ ಪೋರಸ್‌ನ ಧೈರ್ಯ ಮೆಚ್ಚಿ ರಾಜ್ಯ ಹಿಂದಿರುಗಿಸಿದ. ಬಿಯಾಸ್ ಬಳಿ, ಆಚೆ ನಂದರ ಭಾರೀ ಸೈನ್ಯದ ಬಗ್ಗೆ ಕೇಳಿ, ದಣಿದ ಸೈನಿಕರು ಮುಂದೆ ಹೋಗಲು ನಿರಾಕರಿಸಿದರು — ಎಷ್ಟೇ ದೊಡ್ಡ ತಂಡವಾದರೂ ವರ್ಷಗಟ್ಟಲೆ ಊರು ಬಿಟ್ಟು ಅಲೆದರೆ 'ಸಾಕು, ಮನೆಗೆ ಹೋಗೋಣ' ಎನ್ನುತ್ತದೆ. ಕ್ರಿ.ಪೂ. 323ರಲ್ಲಿ ಬ್ಯಾಬಿಲೋನ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ ಸತ್ತ. ಫಲ: ಪಶ್ಚಿಮಕ್ಕೆ ದಾರಿಗಳು, ಗ್ರೀಕ್ ದಾಖಲೆಗಳಿಂದ ದಿನಾಂಕಗಳು, ಚಂದ್ರಗುಪ್ತನಿಗೆ ದಾರಿ. (→ English: Alexander · Battle of the Hydaspes · Porus · हिन्दी: सिकंदर · हाइडेस्पीज़ का युद्ध · पोरस)

In exam EnglishAfter conquering the Persian empire, Alexander of Macedon crossed the Hindu Kush and in 326 BCE entered the Punjab. Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, submitted and helped him. Porus, whose kingdom lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab, resisted, and the two armies met in the Battle of the Hydaspes, the Greek name for the Jhelum. Alexander won, but impressed by Porus he left him in charge of his kingdom. When the army reached the Beas, the Hyphasis, the exhausted soldiers, who had heard of the vast army of the Nanda king beyond, refused to go on. Alexander turned back down the Indus and left India in 325 BCE; he died at Babylon in 323 BCE. The invasion was brief, but it opened sea and land routes to the west, produced Greek accounts that help fix Indian dates, and weakened the small northwestern states, clearing the ground for Chandragupta Maurya.

ಒಟ್ಟಾಗಿ ನೋಡಿದರೆ — ಹಲವು ತುಂಡುಗಳ ನಕ್ಷೆ ಒಂದೇ ರಾಜ್ಯದ ಪ್ರಾಬಲ್ಯಕ್ಕೆ ಬಂತು. ಕಬ್ಬಿಣ, ಭತ್ತ, ವ್ಯಾಪಾರ ಹೆಚ್ಚುವರಿ ಕೊಟ್ಟವು; ಪಟ್ಟಣಗಳು, ನಾಣ್ಯಗಳು, ಶ್ರೇಣಿಗಳು ಪ್ರದೇಶಗಳನ್ನು ಬೆಸೆದವು. ಹದಿನಾರು ಮಹಾಜನಪದ ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಮಗಧ ಭೌಗೋಳಿಕ ಬಲ ಮತ್ತು ಕಠಿಣ ರಾಜರಿಂದ ನೆರೆಹೊರೆಯವರನ್ನು ನುಂಗಿತು — ಅಂಗ, ವಜ್ಜಿ, ಅವಂತಿ, ಉತ್ತರದ ಬಹುಭಾಗ. ಗಣ-ಸಂಘ ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳೂ ಕೊನೆಗೆ ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಸೇರಿಹೋದವು. ಸಣ್ಣ ಮೀನುಗಳನ್ನು ದೊಡ್ಡ ಮೀನು ನುಂಗಿದಂತೆ. ಈ ಪಟ್ಟಣಗಳು, ಸಂಪತ್ತು, ವೈದಿಕ ಕರ್ಮಗಳ ಮೇಲಿನ ಸಂಶಯಗಳೇ ಬುದ್ಧ, ಮಹಾವೀರರ ಬೋಧನೆಗಳ ಹಿನ್ನೆಲೆ. (→ English: mahajanapada · gana-sangha · Magadha · हिन्दी: महाजनपद · गण-संघ · मगध)

In exam EnglishTaken together, this part shows how a political map of many units became a map dominated by one. Iron, rice and trade created the surplus that let rulers keep armies and officials; towns, coins and guilds tied regions together; and of the sixteen mahajanapada states, Magadha used its geography, resources and ruthless kings to absorb its neighbours, from Anga under Bimbisara to the Vajjis under Ajatashatru, Avanti under Shishunaga and much of the north under the Nandas. The gana-sangha states, proud of their assemblies, were eventually swallowed by the kingdoms. In the northwest, Persian rule and Alexander's raid showed how divided the region was. The same towns, wealth and doubts about Vedic ritual form the setting for the teachers in Parts 2 and 3: the Buddha, Mahavira and their rivals.

Exam traps

Two canonical texts each name sixteen great states, the Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya and the Jain Bhagavati Sutra, but their names differ; exam questions usually follow the Buddhist one.
Of all sixteen, only Ashmaka (Assaka) lay beyond the Vindhyas, in the Godavari valley.
Vajji and Malla were gana-sanghas, not monarchies; the Lichchhavis of Vaishali led the Vajji confederacy, and the Shakyas of Kapilavastu were the Buddha's clan.
Gana-sanghas were rule by clan elites in an assembly, not democracies with votes for all.
Do not credit Bimbisara with Pataliputra: Ajatashatru built a fort at the village of Pataligrama, and it was Udayin who made the new city his capital.
Kosala's capital was Shravasti, Vatsa's Kaushambi and Avanti's Ujjayini; do not confuse Kaushambi with Kushinara, the Malla town.
Kharoshthi, written right to left, grew from Aramaic in the Persian-ruled northwest; it is not derived from Brahmi.
Battle of the Hydaspes (Jhelum), 326 BCE, Alexander against Porus; the army refused to cross the Beas (Hyphasis), not the Jhelum.

Recap

Sixth century BCE: second urbanisation in the Ganga plain built on iron, rice, towns, NBPW and punch-marked coins.
Sources: Anguttara Nikaya (sixteen Mahajanapadas), Bhagavati Sutra, Puranas, Panini, Greek writers, archaeology.
Sixteen states from Gandhara to Anga; Ashmaka the only one south of the Vindhyas; Panchala and Avanti had two capitals.
Big four: Kosala (Prasenajit), Vatsa (Udayana), Avanti (Pradyota), Magadha (Bimbisara, Ajatashatru).
Gana-sanghas: Vajjis of Vaishali (Lichchhavis), Mallas, Shakyas; assembly in the santhagara.
Magadha rose through fertile land, iron, rivers, elephants, strong capitals and ambitious kings.
Haryanka: Bimbisara (Anga, marriage alliances), Ajatashatru (Kosala, Vajjis), Udayin (Pataliputra).
Shishunaga destroyed Avanti; Kalashoka; Nandas (Mahapadma, Dhana Nanda) rich and powerful, ended c. 321 BCE.
Persians under Darius I took Gandhara and Hindush; Kharoshthi from Aramaic. Alexander, 326 BCE: Hydaspes, halt at the Beas.

Practice questions

Q1. Which one of the following Mahajanapadas lay south of the Vindhyas?

Avanti
Chedi
Ashmaka
Vatsa

Show answer

Answer: C. Ashmaka

Answer (c). Ashmaka, on the Godavari, was the only Mahajanapada south of the Vindhyas. Avanti (a) and Chedi (b) lay in central India north of the range, and Vatsa (d) was on the Yamuna around Kaushambi.

Q2. Match the Mahajanapada with its capital:
A. Kosala 1. Kaushambi
B. Vatsa 2. Taxila
C. Gandhara 3. Shravasti
D. Anga 4. Champa
Select the correct code:

A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4
A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3

Show answer

Answer: A. A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4

Answer (a). Kosala had Shravasti, Vatsa had Kaushambi, Gandhara had Taxila and Anga had Champa. Option (b) swaps Kosala and Vatsa, (c) swaps Gandhara and Anga, and (d) swaps Kosala and Anga.

Q3. Consider the following statements about the gana-sanghas of the sixth century BCE:
1. They were ruled by an assembly of clan heads rather than a single hereditary king.
2. The Lichchhavis were the leading clan of the Vajji confederacy.
3. Their assemblies were open to every grown-up inhabitant, slaves and hired workers among them.
Which of the statements given above are correct?

1 and 2 only
2 and 3 only
1 and 3 only
1, 2 and 3

Show answer

Answer: A. 1 and 2 only

Answer (a). Statements 1 and 2 are correct. Statement 3 is wrong: power lay with clan elites, and labourers and slaves had no voice. Options (b), (c) and (d) all include statement 3.

Q4. Who among the following founded the city of Pataliputra at the confluence of the Ganga and the Son?

Bimbisara
Ajatashatru
Udayin
Mahapadma Nanda

Show answer

Answer: C. Udayin

Answer (c). Udayin built Pataliputra as the new capital. Bimbisara (a) ruled from Rajagriha; Ajatashatru (b) only fortified the village of Pataligrama; Mahapadma Nanda (d) ruled later and did not found the city.

Q5. Which of the following helped Magadha become the strongest of the Mahajanapadas?
1. Rich iron ores close to its territory
2. Use of elephants in war
3. A capital ringed by hills and later a river fort
4. Control of the sea ports of the western coast
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

1 and 2 only
1, 2 and 3 only
2, 3 and 4 only
1, 2, 3 and 4

Show answer

Answer: B. 1, 2 and 3 only

Answer (b). Iron, elephants and the strong capitals of Rajagriha and Pataliputra all helped. Point 4 is wrong: Magadha was an inland power of the Ganga plain and did not depend on western sea ports. Options (c) and (d) include point 4, and (a) leaves out point 3.

Q6. Which king is called 'sarva-kshatrantaka' in the Puranas, a title meaning that he wiped out the Kshatriya ruling houses?

Shishunaga
Mahapadma Nanda
Ajatashatru
Chanda Pradyota

Show answer

Answer: B. Mahapadma Nanda

Answer (b). The Puranas give this title, and ekarat, to Mahapadma Nanda, founder of the Nanda dynasty. Shishunaga (a) is remembered for ending Avanti's power, Ajatashatru (c) for his wars with Kosala and the Vajjis, and Chanda Pradyota (d) was the king of Avanti.

Q7. Consider the following statements about the Persian connection with north-west India:
1. Darius I added Gandhara and the Indus region to the Achaemenid empire.
2. The Kharoshthi script developed from the Aramaic script.
3. Kharoshthi was written from left to right like Brahmi.
Which of the statements given above are correct?

1 and 2 only
2 and 3 only
1 and 3 only
1, 2 and 3

Show answer

Answer: A. 1 and 2 only

Answer (a). Statements 1 and 2 are correct. Statement 3 is wrong: Kharoshthi was written from right to left, unlike Brahmi. Options (b), (c) and (d) all include statement 3.

Q8. Alexander's army refused to advance further into India on reaching which river?

Jhelum (Hydaspes)
Chenab
Beas (Hyphasis)
Indus

Show answer

Answer: C. Beas (Hyphasis)

Answer (c). The troops refused to go beyond the Beas, the Hyphasis of the Greeks. The Jhelum (a) is where Alexander defeated Porus in 326 BCE; the Chenab (b) bordered Porus's kingdom; and the Indus (d) was crossed on the way in and followed on the way out.

All parts Next: Part 2 →

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Sources

Centre for Cultural Resources and Training (Ministry of Culture): material on ancient Indian history, the Mahajanapadas and the religions of the sixth century BCE — https://ccrtindia.gov.in
Archaeological Survey of India: Indian Archaeology – A Review, excavation reports and site notes on Rajgir, Vaishali, Kaushambi, Ujjain and Kumrahar (Pataliputra) — https://asi.nic.in