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English · हिन्दी · తెలుగు · தமிழ் · മലയാളം · मराठी · ಕನ್ನಡ

The Gupta age: state, society and culture

ಕನ್ನಡದಲ್ಲಿ ವಿವರಣೆ

The Guptas and after · Part 2 / 4 · Fact-checked on · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

Gupta kingship and officials; provinces, districts and the Kotivarsha board; land grants, samantas, taxes and forced labour; coins, guilds and trade; caste, the kayasthas and the position of women; Vaishnavism, the Puranas, Buddhism and the Valabhi council; early temples, sculpture and Ajanta; Kalidasa and other writers; Aryabhata, Varahamihira and zero; the golden age debate.

Each idea is explained first in Kannada (ಕನ್ನಡ), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Kannada and revise it in English.

ಮೊದಲ ಭಾಗ ಗುಪ್ತ ರಾಜರ ಕಥೆ; ಈ ಭಾಗ ಅವರು ಆಳಿದ ಸಮಾಜ. ಗುಪ್ತ ಕಾಲವನ್ನು 'ಸುವರ್ಣಯುಗ' ಎನ್ನುತ್ತಾರೆ — ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತ ನಾಟಕ, ಕಾವ್ಯ ಉತ್ತುಂಗದಲ್ಲಿ, ವಿಗ್ರಹಗಳಿಗಾಗಿ ಮೊದಲ ಕಲ್ಲಿನ ದೇವಾಲಯಗಳು, ಪುರಾಣಗಳು ಸುಮಾರು ಇಂದಿನ ರೂಪದಲ್ಲಿ, ಖಗೋಳ-ಗಣಿತದಲ್ಲಿ ದೊಡ್ಡ ಮುನ್ನಡೆ. ಆದರೆ ಅದೇ ಕಾಲದಲ್ಲಿ ಭೂದಾನ ಹೆಚ್ಚಿತು, ಜಾತಿ ಬಿಗಿಯಾಯಿತು, ಹಳೆಯ ವ್ಯಾಪಾರಿ ಪಟ್ಟಣಗಳು ಕುಗ್ಗಿದವು. ಮದುವೆ ಫೋಟೋದಲ್ಲಿ ಮಿಂಚು ಮಾತ್ರ ಕಾಣುತ್ತದೆ, ಖರ್ಚಿನ ಲೆಕ್ಕ ಕಾಣುವುದಿಲ್ಲ — ಎರಡನ್ನೂ ನೋಡಬೇಕು. (→ English: golden age · Gupta period · हिन्दी: स्वर्ण युग · गुप्त काल)

In exam EnglishPart 1 followed the Gupta kings; this part looks at the world they ruled. The Gupta period has often been called a golden age, because so much that later Indians thought of as classical took shape in it: Sanskrit drama and poetry at their height, the first stone temples built to house images, the Puranas in roughly their present form, and major advances in astronomy and mathematics. The same centuries also saw kings give away land and rights on a large scale, caste rules harden and the towns of the old trading economy decline.

ಗುಪ್ತ ರಾಜರು 'ಮಹಾರಾಜಾಧಿರಾಜ', 'ಪರಮಭಟ್ಟಾರಕ', 'ಪರಮೇಶ್ವರ' ಎಂಬ ದೊಡ್ಡ ಬಿರುದುಗಳನ್ನು ಧರಿಸಿದರು; ಕವಿಗಳು ಅವರನ್ನು ದೇವರಿಗೆ ಹೋಲಿಸಿದರು. ದೊಡ್ಡ ಹುದ್ದೆಗಳು ತಲೆಮಾರಿನಿಂದ ಅದೇ ಮನೆತನಗಳಲ್ಲಿ — ಹರಿಷೇಣ ಕುಮಾರಾಮಾತ್ಯ, ಸಂಧಿವಿಗ್ರಹಿಕ (ಯುದ್ಧ-ಶಾಂತಿ ಮಂತ್ರಿ), ಮಹಾದಂಡನಾಯಕ; ಅವನ ತಂದೆಯೂ ಉನ್ನತ ಅಧಿಕಾರಿ. ಮೌರ್ಯರಂತೆ ಸಂಬಳದ ದೊಡ್ಡ ಅಧಿಕಾರಿವರ್ಗ, ಗೂಢಚಾರರ ಜಾಲ, ವ್ಯಾಪಾರದ ಮೇಲೆ ಕಟ್ಟುನಿಟ್ಟಿನ ನಿಯಂತ್ರಣ ಇರಲಿಲ್ಲ. ಮದುವೆಗೆ ಅಡುಗೆಯವರನ್ನು ಸಂಬಳಕ್ಕೆ ಇಡದೆ ನೆಂಟರೇ ಒಂದೊಂದು ಕೆಲಸ ಹಂಚಿಕೊಂಡಂತೆ — ಸೈನ್ಯದ ದೊಡ್ಡ ಭಾಗವನ್ನು ಸಾಮಂತರೇ ಕಳಿಸುತ್ತಿದ್ದರು. (→ English: kumaramatya · sandhivigrahika · हिन्दी: कुमारामात्य · संधिविग्रहिक)

In exam EnglishGupta kings claimed grand titles such as maharajadhiraja, paramabhattaraka and parameshvara, and court poets compared them to the gods; Harishena likens Samudragupta to the guardian deities of the quarters. Below the king stood ministers and senior officers whose posts often passed down within families. Harishena himself was a kumaramatya, a sandhivigrahika (minister of war and peace) and a mahadandanayaka, and his father had also been a high officer. Unlike the Mauryas, the Guptas left no evidence of a large salaried bureaucracy, a network of spies or close state control of trade and crafts. A good part of the army was supplied by feudatories when it was needed, so the state depended heavily on the loyalty of local powers.

ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯವನ್ನು ಭುಕ್ತಿಗಳಾಗಿ (ಪ್ರಾಂತ) ವಿಂಗಡಿಸಲಾಗಿತ್ತು — ಪ್ರತಿಯೊಂದಕ್ಕೂ ಉಪರಿಕ ಎಂಬ ಆಡಳಿತಗಾರ. ಭುಕ್ತಿಯೊಳಗೆ ವಿಷಯ (ಜಿಲ್ಲೆ) — ವಿಷಯಪತಿ ಮುಖ್ಯಸ್ಥ. ಬಂಗಾಳದ ದಾಮೋದರಪುರ ತಾಮ್ರಪಟಗಳ ಪ್ರಕಾರ ಕೋಟಿವರ್ಷ ಜಿಲ್ಲಾ ಕಚೇರಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ವಿಷಯಪತಿಗೆ ನೆರವಾಗುವ ಮಂಡಳಿ: ನಗರಶ್ರೇಷ್ಠಿ (ವರ್ತಕರ ಮುಖ್ಯಸ್ಥ), ಸಾರ್ಥವಾಹ (ವ್ಯಾಪಾರಿ ತಂಡದ ನಾಯಕ), ಪ್ರಥಮ ಕುಲಿಕ (ಮುಖ್ಯ ಕುಶಲಕರ್ಮಿ), ಪ್ರಥಮ ಕಾಯಸ್ಥ (ಮುಖ್ಯ ಲೇಖಕ). ದಾನಕ್ಕಾಗಿ ಭೂಮಿ ಕೊಳ್ಳಬೇಕಾದರೆ ದಾಖಲೆ ನೋಡಿ ಅನುಮತಿ. ಇಂದು ನಗರಸಭೆ ಸಮಿತಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ವರ್ತಕರ ಸಂಘ, ಕಾರ್ಮಿಕ ಸಂಘದ ಪ್ರತಿನಿಧಿಗಳು ಇರುವಂತೆ. ಹಳ್ಳಿಗಳನ್ನು ಗ್ರಾಮಿಕ ಮತ್ತು ಹಿರಿಯರು ನಡೆಸುತ್ತಿದ್ದರು. (→ English: bhukti · vishaya · uparika · हिन्दी: भुक्ति · विषय · उपरिक)

In exam EnglishThe empire was divided into provinces, each called a bhukti (province) and governed by an uparika, often a prince or a trusted noble appointed by the king. Each province was split into districts, each a vishaya (district) under a vishayapati. The Damodarpur copper plates from north Bengal, issued under Kumaragupta I and Budhagupta, show how a district office at Kotivarsha worked. The vishayapati was assisted by a board that included the nagarashreshthi (head of the town's bankers and merchants), the sarthavaha (leading caravan trader), the prathama-kulika (chief artisan) and the prathama-kayastha (chief scribe). When a person wished to buy state land to give away as a religious gift, the office checked its records before approving the sale. Villages were run by a headman (gramika) together with village elders, and many local matters never reached royal officers at all.

ಹಳ್ಳಿಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ದೊಡ್ಡ ಬದಲಾವಣೆ ಭೂದಾನ. ರಾಜರು, ಶ್ರೀಮಂತರು ಬ್ರಾಹ್ಮಣರಿಗೆ, ದೇವಾಲಯಗಳಿಗೆ, ವಿಹಾರಗಳಿಗೆ ಹಳ್ಳಿಗಳನ್ನು ಕೊಟ್ಟರು; ಬ್ರಾಹ್ಮಣರಿಗೆ ಕೊಟ್ಟ ಹಳ್ಳಿ ಅಗ್ರಹಾರ. ತೆರಿಗೆ ಇಲ್ಲ, ಶಾಶ್ವತ; ಆಗಾಗ ರಾಜನ ತೆರಿಗೆ ವಸೂಲಿ ಹಕ್ಕು, ಕೆಲವೊಮ್ಮೆ ಅಪರಾಧ ನೋಡುವ ಹಕ್ಕೂ ದಾನ ಪಡೆದವರಿಗೇ. ರಾಜನ ಅಧಿಕಾರಿಗಳಿಗೆ ರೈತರೊಂದಿಗೆ ನೇರ ಸಂಬಂಧ ಕಡಿಯಿತು. ಸೋತ ರಾಜರು, ಬಲಿಷ್ಠ ಸ್ಥಳೀಯ ಮನೆತನಗಳು ಸಾಮಂತರಾದರು — ಕಪ್ಪ, ಸೈನ್ಯ ಕೊಟ್ಟು ತಮ್ಮ ಭೂಮಿಯನ್ನು ತಾವೇ ಆಳಿದರು. ತೆರಿಗೆ 'ಭಾಗ' (ಬೆಳೆಯ ಆರನೇ ಒಂದು), ಜೊತೆಗೆ ಭೋಗ, ಉದ್ರಂಗ, ಉಪರಿಕರ; 'ವಿಷ್ಟಿ' ಅಂದರೆ ಕೂಲಿ ಇಲ್ಲದ ಬಿಟ್ಟಿ ಚಾಕರಿ. ಮನೆಯ ಯಜಮಾನ ಬೀಗದ ಕೈಗಳನ್ನು ಒಬ್ಬೊಬ್ಬರಿಗೆ ಕೊಟ್ಟರೆ ಮನೆಯ ಮೇಲಿನ ಹಿಡಿತ ಕಡಿಮೆಯಾದಂತೆ. (→ English: agrahara · samanta · vishti · हिन्दी: अग्रहार · सामंत · विष्टि)

In exam EnglishThe biggest change in the countryside was the spread of land grants. Kings and wealthy people gave villages or plots to Brahmanas, temples and monasteries, and a village granted to Brahmanas was called an agrahara (land grant to Brahmanas). Such grants were usually free of tax and permanent, and many also handed the grantee the right to collect the king's dues and, in some cases, to deal with crime in the village, so royal officers lost direct contact with the peasants there. At the same time, defeated rulers and powerful local families became a samanta (feudatory) class of subordinate rulers who paid tribute, attended court and sent troops in war while running their own lands. The main tax was the bhaga, the king's share of the crop, usually reckoned at one-sixth; other dues included bhoga, udranga and uparikara, and villagers could be made to do vishti, unpaid forced labour. Some historians, notably R. S. Sharma, see in these changes the beginnings of Indian feudalism; others think the term overstates the break with the past.

ಆರ್ಥಿಕತೆಯ ಅಡಿಪಾಯ ಕೃಷಿ; ಕಾಡು, ಗಡಿ ಭಾಗಗಳ ಭೂದಾನಗಳಿಂದ ಹೊಸ ಭೂಮಿ ಉಳುಮೆಗೆ ಬಂತು. ಗುಪ್ತರು ಹಿಂದಿನ ಯಾರಿಗಿಂತಲೂ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಚಿನ್ನದ ನಾಣ್ಯ ಹೊರಡಿಸಿದರು — ಹೆಸರು 'ದೀನಾರ' (ರೋಮನ್ ಡೆನಾರಿಯಸ್‌ನಿಂದ). ಪಶ್ಚಿಮದಲ್ಲಿ ಬೆಳ್ಳಿ ನಾಣ್ಯ, ಆದರೆ ತಾಮ್ರದ ನಾಣ್ಯ ಕಡಿಮೆ — ಅಂದರೆ ದಿನದ ಸಣ್ಣ ಖರೀದಿ ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ನಾಣ್ಯವಿಲ್ಲದೆ, ವಿನಿಮಯದಂತೆ. ಊರಲ್ಲಿ ಭತ್ತ ಕೊಟ್ಟು ತರಕಾರಿ ತೆಗೆದುಕೊಂಡಂತೆ. ವೈಶಾಲಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ವರ್ತಕ ಸಂಘಗಳ ಮಣ್ಣಿನ ಮುದ್ರೆಗಳು. ರೋಮ್ ಜೊತೆ ವ್ಯಾಪಾರ ಕುಗ್ಗಿತು, ತಾಮ್ರಲಿಪ್ತಿ ಬಂದರಿನ ಮೂಲಕ ಆಗ್ನೇಯ ಏಷ್ಯಾ, ಚೀನಾ ಜೊತೆ ವ್ಯಾಪಾರ ಹೆಚ್ಚಿತು. ನಂತರದ ನಾಣ್ಯಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಚಿನ್ನ ಕಡಿಮೆ, ಹಳೆಯ ಪಟ್ಟಣಗಳು ಕುಗ್ಗಿದವು. (→ English: dinara · guild · हिन्दी: दीनार · श्रेणी)

In exam EnglishAgriculture was the base of the economy, and land grants in forest and frontier areas brought new land under the plough. The Guptas issued more gold coins than any earlier Indian dynasty and called them dinaras, a name taken from the Roman denarius. After Chandragupta II's western conquest, silver coins were struck for the former Kshatrapa lands, but copper coins were comparatively few, which suggests that much small everyday trade went on without coins. Clay seals of guilds of bankers, traders and artisans found at Vaishali (Basarh) show that guilds were still active. Trade with the Roman world, so important in the previous age, fell away after the third century, while sea trade with Southeast Asia and China grew through ports such as Tamralipti in Bengal. Later Gupta gold coins contain less pure gold than the early ones, and many old towns of north India shrank in the following centuries.

ಗುಪ್ತ ಯುಗದಲ್ಲಿ ಸಮಾಜ ಇನ್ನಷ್ಟು ಬಿಗಿಯಾಯಿತು. ನಾರದ, ಬೃಹಸ್ಪತಿ, ಕಾತ್ಯಾಯನ ಸ್ಮೃತಿಗಳು ನಾಲ್ಕು ವರ್ಣಗಳ ಕರ್ತವ್ಯಗಳನ್ನು ಮತ್ತೆ ಹೇಳಿದವು; ಭೂದಾನಗಳಿಂದ ಬ್ರಾಹ್ಮಣರ ಸ್ಥಾನ ಬಲವಾಯಿತು. ಕಾಡಿನ ಜನರು, ವಿದೇಶಿಯರು ಹೊಸ ಜಾತಿಗಳಾಗಿ ಜಾತಿ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆಗೆ ಸೇರಿದರು — ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ಕೆಳಗಿನ ಸ್ಥಾನದಲ್ಲಿ. ಚಾಂಡಾಲರನ್ನು ಅಸ್ಪೃಶ್ಯರಂತೆ ಕಾಣಲಾಯಿತು. ದಾಖಲೆ ಹೆಚ್ಚಿದಂತೆ ಲೇಖಕರಾದ ಕಾಯಸ್ಥರು ಮುಖ್ಯರಾದರು — ಕಚೇರಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಕಡತ ಹೆಚ್ಚಿದರೆ ಗುಮಾಸ್ತರ ಬೆಲೆ ಹೆಚ್ಚುವಂತೆ. ಮೇಲ್ವರ್ಣದ ಸ್ತ್ರೀಯರ ಸ್ಥಿತಿ ಕುಸಿಯಿತು: ಚಿಕ್ಕ ವಯಸ್ಸಿನ ಮದುವೆ, ವಿಧವೆಯರಿಗೆ ಕಠಿಣ ಜೀವನ. ಎರಣ್ ಶಾಸನ (ಕ್ರಿ.ಶ. 510) — ಸೇನಾನಿ ಗೋಪರಾಜನ ಪತ್ನಿ ಚಿತೆಯಲ್ಲಿ — ಸತಿಯ ಮೊದಲ ದಿನಾಂಕಿತ ಸ್ಮಾರಕ. ಆದರೂ ಪ್ರಭಾವತೀಗುಪ್ತ ರಾಜ್ಯ ನಡೆಸಿದಳು. (→ English: sati · kayastha · Eran inscription · हिन्दी: सती · कायस्थ · एरण अभिलेख)

In exam EnglishSociety grew more rigid in the Gupta age. Law books of the period, among them the Smritis of Narada, Brihaspati and Katyayana, restate the duties of the four varnas, and land grants strengthened the privileged position of the Brahmanas. Many forest peoples and foreign groups were drawn into the caste order as new jatis, usually at a low rank. The chandalas were treated as untouchable, as Fa-Hien's account shows. A new group, the kayasthas, scribes and record-keepers, grew in importance as land grants and written records multiplied. Women of the upper varnas lost ground: girls were married young and widows were expected to live austerely. The Eran inscription of 510 CE, which records that the wife of a commander named Goparaja followed him onto the funeral pyre, is the earliest dated memorial of sati. Yet a royal woman such as Prabhavatigupta could still govern a kingdom.

ಗುಪ್ತ ರಾಜರು ವಿಷ್ಣುಭಕ್ತರು — 'ಪರಮಭಾಗವತ' ಬಿರುದು; ಮುದ್ರೆಗಳ ಮೇಲೆ ಗರುಡ. ವಿಷ್ಣುವಿನ ಅವತಾರಗಳ — ವರಾಹ, ನರಸಿಂಹ, ಕೃಷ್ಣ — ಪೂಜೆ ಹರಡಿತು; ಉದಯಗಿರಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಭೂದೇವಿಯನ್ನು ಸಮುದ್ರದಿಂದ ಎತ್ತುವ ದೊಡ್ಡ ವರಾಹ ಶಿಲ್ಪ. ಪುರಾಣಗಳು ಸುಮಾರು ಇಂದಿನ ರೂಪ ಪಡೆದವು — ದೇವರ ಕಥೆ, ತೀರ್ಥಯಾತ್ರೆ, ವಿಗ್ರಹಪೂಜೆ ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯರವರೆಗೆ. ಅಜ್ಜಿ ರಾತ್ರಿ ಹೇಳುವ ಕಥೆಗಳಂತೆ ಪುರಾಣಗಳು ಮನೆಮನೆಗೆ ಮುಟ್ಟಿದವು; ಭಕ್ತಿ ಬೆಳೆಯಿತು. ಶಿವಪೂಜೆಯೂ ಪ್ರಬಲ. ಬೌದ್ಧ — ನಾಲಂದಾ, ಸಾರನಾಥ. ವಲಭಿಯ ಜೈನ ಸಭೆ (5ನೇ ಶತಮಾನ) ಶ್ವೇತಾಂಬರ ಗ್ರಂಥಗಳನ್ನು ಬರಹಕ್ಕೆ ತಂದಿತು. (→ English: Puranas · parama-bhagavata · Valabhi council · हिन्दी: पुराण · परमभागवत · वलभी संगीति)

In exam EnglishThe Gupta kings were devotees of Vishnu who called themselves parama-bhagavata, supreme worshippers of the Lord, and their seals carried Garuda, the eagle on which Vishnu rides. Worship of Vishnu through his avatars, especially Varaha, Narasimha and Krishna, spread widely; the great Varaha panel at Udayagiri shows the boar-headed god lifting the earth goddess out of the ocean. The Puranas took roughly their present form in this period, carrying stories of the gods, pilgrimage and image worship to ordinary people, and bhakti, personal devotion to a chosen god, began to grow. Shiva was widely worshipped too, and kings often supported several faiths at once. Buddhism remained strong, with Nalanda and Sarnath as great centres. Among the Jains, a council held at Valabhi in Gujarat in the fifth century wrote down the Shvetambara canon.

ಗುಪ್ತ ಕಾಲದಲ್ಲೇ ಪ್ರತ್ಯೇಕವಾಗಿ ನಿಲ್ಲುವ ಹಿಂದೂ ದೇವಾಲಯ ಆರಂಭವಾಯಿತು. ಮೊದಲವು — ಸಾಂಚಿಯ 17ನೇ ದೇವಾಲಯ, ತಿಗವಾ — ಚಪ್ಪಟೆ ಛಾವಣಿ, ಸಣ್ಣ ಚೌಕ ಗರ್ಭಗೃಹ, ಮುಂದೆ ಕಂಬಗಳ ಮಂಟಪ. ಊರಲ್ಲಿ ಮೊದಲು ಸಣ್ಣ ಗುಡಿ, ನಂತರ ಗೋಪುರ ಏರಿಸಿದಂತೆ — ಮುಂದೆ ಗರ್ಭಗೃಹದ ಮೇಲೆ ಶಿಖರ: ದೇವಗಢದ ಕಲ್ಲಿನ ದಶಾವತಾರ ದೇವಾಲಯ, ಭಿತರಗಾಂವ್‌ನ ಇಟ್ಟಿಗೆ ದೇವಾಲಯ — ಉತ್ತರದ ನಾಗರ ಶೈಲಿಯ ಮೊದಲ ಹೆಜ್ಜೆಗಳು. ಶಿಲ್ಪ ಶಾಂತ, ಸುಂದರ: ಸಾರನಾಥದ ಧರ್ಮಚಕ್ರ ಬುದ್ಧ, ಸುಲ್ತಾನಗಂಜ್‌ನ ತಾಮ್ರದ ಬುದ್ಧ. ಮೆಹ್ರೌಲಿ ಕಬ್ಬಿಣದ ಕಂಬ (7 ಮೀಟರ್‌ಗಿಂತ ಎತ್ತರ) ಹದಿನಾರು ಶತಮಾನ ಹೊರಗಿದ್ದರೂ ತುಕ್ಕು ತುಂಬ ಕಡಿಮೆ. (→ English: garbhagriha · Nagara style · Dashavatara temple · हिन्दी: गर्भगृह · नागर शैली · दशावतार मंदिर)

In exam EnglishThe Gupta age saw the beginning of the free-standing Hindu temple. The earliest surviving examples, such as temple 17 at Sanchi and the temple at Tigawa, are small square shrines with flat roofs and a pillared porch in front of the sanctum (garbhagriha). A little later, builders began to raise a tower over the sanctum: the stone Dashavatara temple at Deogarh and the brick temple at Bhitargaon near Kanpur are early steps towards the northern Nagara style. Gupta sculpture is admired for calm, graceful figures; the seated Buddha from Sarnath, shown turning the wheel of the law, and the tall copper Buddha from Sultanganj in Bihar are famous examples. Metal-working reached a high level, and the Mehrauli iron pillar, over seven metres tall, has stood in the open for about sixteen centuries with remarkably little rust.

ಈ ಕಾಲದ ಚಿತ್ರಗಳು ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ಗುಹೆಯ ಗೋಡೆಗಳ ಮೇಲೆ ಉಳಿದಿವೆ. ಅಜಂತಾದಲ್ಲಿ 5ನೇ ಶತಮಾನದಲ್ಲಿ ವಾಕಾಟಕರ ಕಾಲದಲ್ಲಿ ಕೊರೆದ ಗುಹೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಬುದ್ಧನ ಜೀವನ, ಜಾತಕ ಕಥೆಗಳ ಭಿತ್ತಿಚಿತ್ರಗಳು — ಸಿದ್ಧಪಡಿಸಿದ ಗಾರೆಯ ಮೇಲೆ ಖನಿಜ ಬಣ್ಣಗಳಿಂದ. 1ನೇ ಗುಹೆಯ ಪದ್ಮಪಾಣಿ ಬೋಧಿಸತ್ವ ಅತಿ ಪ್ರಸಿದ್ಧ. ಮಧ್ಯಪ್ರದೇಶದ ಬಾಘ್ ಗುಹೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಸುಮಾರು ಅದೇ ಶೈಲಿ. ಅರಮನೆ, ಬೀದಿ, ಪ್ರಾಣಿ, ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಜನ — ಜೀವಂತವಾಗಿರುವಂತೆ. ಗಂಡಿನ ಮನೆಯ ಅಡುಗೆ, ಹೆಣ್ಣಿನ ಮನೆಯ ರುಚಿ ಒಂದೇ ಆದಂತೆ — ಅಜಂತಾ ವಾಕಾಟಕರದು, ಶೈಲಿ ಗುಪ್ತರದು. (→ English: Ajanta · Bagh caves · Padmapani · हिन्दी: अजंता · बाघ गुफाएँ · पद्मपाणि)

In exam EnglishPainting of the period survives mainly on cave walls. At Ajanta, the later caves made under the Vakatakas in the fifth century carry murals of the Buddha's life and of the Jataka stories, painted on a prepared plaster surface with mineral colours; the Bodhisattva Padmapani in cave 1 is the best-known figure. The caves at Bagh in Madhya Pradesh hold paintings in a closely related style. These works show palaces, streets, animals and ordinary people with great skill and feeling. Strictly speaking, Ajanta's later paintings are Vakataka works, made by that dynasty's kings and nobles, even though they share the style of Gupta art.

ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತ ರಾಜಸಭೆ, ಶಾಸನಗಳ ಭಾಷೆಯಾಯಿತು — ಶಾತವಾಹನ ಕಾಲದ ಪ್ರಾಕೃತದ ಸ್ಥಾನದಲ್ಲಿ. ಮಹಾಕವಿ ಕಾಳಿದಾಸ: ನಾಟಕಗಳು ಅಭಿಜ್ಞಾನಶಾಕುಂತಲ, ಮಾಳವಿಕಾಗ್ನಿಮಿತ್ರ, ವಿಕ್ರಮೋರ್ವಶೀಯ; ಕಾವ್ಯಗಳು ಮೇಘದೂತ, ರಘುವಂಶ, ಕುಮಾರಸಂಭವ, ಋತುಸಂಹಾರ. ಪರಂಪರೆ ಅವನನ್ನು ವಿಕ್ರಮಾದಿತ್ಯನ ಸಭೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಇಡುತ್ತದೆ. ವಿಶಾಖದತ್ತ — ಮುದ್ರಾರಾಕ್ಷಸ (ಚಾಣಕ್ಯ-ಚಂದ್ರಗುಪ್ತ ಮೌರ್ಯ), ದೇವೀಚಂದ್ರಗುಪ್ತಂ. ಶೂದ್ರಕ — ಮೃಚ್ಛಕಟಿಕ. ಅಮರಸಿಂಹ — ಅಮರಕೋಶ (ನಿಘಂಟು). ವಿಷ್ಣುಶರ್ಮ — ಪಂಚತಂತ್ರ. ನಾಟಕಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ರಾಜರು ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತ, ಸ್ತ್ರೀಯರು-ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯರು ಪ್ರಾಕೃತ — ಸಿನಿಮಾದಲ್ಲಿ ದೊಡ್ಡವರು ಗ್ರಾಂಥಿಕ, ಆಳು ಹಳ್ಳಿ ಮಾತು ಆಡುವಂತೆ. (→ English: Kalidasa · Mudrarakshasa · Amarakosha · हिन्दी: कालिदास · मुद्राराक्षस · अमरकोश)

In exam EnglishSanskrit became the language of the court and of royal inscriptions, taking the place that Prakrit had held under the Satavahanas and others. The greatest writer of the age was Kalidasa, whose plays Abhijnanashakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram and Vikramorvashiyam and poems Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava and Ritusamhara are classics; tradition places him at the court of a king Vikramaditya, often taken to be Chandragupta II. Vishakhadatta wrote the political drama Mudrarakshasa, about Chanakya's plans for Chandragupta Maurya, as well as the Devichandraguptam. The Mrichchhakatika (the little clay cart), a play about a poor Brahmana merchant and a courtesan, is attributed to Shudraka and is usually placed in or near this period. Amarasimha compiled the Amarakosha, a Sanskrit thesaurus, and the Panchatantra animal fables are linked with the name of Vishnu Sharma. In the plays of the time, kings and Brahmanas speak Sanskrit while most women and common people speak Prakrit, a small mirror of the social order.

ವಿಜ್ಞಾನದಲ್ಲಿ ದೊಡ್ಡ ಮುನ್ನಡೆ. ಆರ್ಯಭಟ ಕ್ರಿ.ಶ. 499ರಲ್ಲಿ, 23ನೇ ವಯಸ್ಸಿನಲ್ಲಿ, ಕುಸುಮಪುರದಲ್ಲಿ 'ಆರ್ಯಭಟೀಯ' ಬರೆದ. ಭೂಮಿ ತನ್ನ ಅಕ್ಷದ ಮೇಲೆ ತಿರುಗುತ್ತದೆ ಎಂದ; ಗ್ರಹಣ ರಾಹುವಿನಿಂದ ಅಲ್ಲ, ಭೂಮಿ-ಚಂದ್ರರ ನೆರಳಿನಿಂದ ಎಂದ — ದೀಪದ ಮುಂದೆ ಕೈ ಹಿಡಿದರೆ ಗೋಡೆಯ ಮೇಲೆ ನೆರಳು ಬೀಳುವಂತೆ; ಪೈ ಮೌಲ್ಯ ಸುಮಾರು 3.1416. ವರಾಹಮಿಹಿರ (6ನೇ ಶತಮಾನ) — ಪಂಚಸಿದ್ಧಾಂತಿಕಾ (ಐದು ಖಗೋಳ ಪದ್ಧತಿಗಳು), ಬೃಹತ್ಸಂಹಿತಾ (ವಿಶ್ವಕೋಶ). ಸೊನ್ನೆಯೊಂದಿಗೆ ದಶಮಾನ ಸ್ಥಾನಬೆಲೆ ಪದ್ಧತಿ ಇಲ್ಲೇ ಬೆಳೆದು ಅರಬರಿಗೆ, ನಂತರ ಯೂರೋಪಿಗೆ ಹೋಯಿತು. ಬ್ರಹ್ಮಗುಪ್ತ (628) ಸೊನ್ನೆ, ಋಣ ಸಂಖ್ಯೆಗಳ ನಿಯಮ. 1975ರ ಮೊದಲ ಉಪಗ್ರಹದ ಹೆಸರು ಆರ್ಯಭಟ. (→ English: Aryabhata · Aryabhatiya · place value · हिन्दी: आर्यभट · आर्यभटीय · स्थानीय मान)

In exam EnglishScience made striking progress. Aryabhata wrote the Aryabhatiya in 499 CE, recording that he was then 23 years old and working at Kusumapura (Pataliputra). He taught that the earth turns on its axis, explained eclipses by the shadows of the earth and the moon rather than by the demon Rahu, and gave the value of pi as about 3.1416. Varahamihira, in the sixth century, summed up five earlier astronomical systems, including two linked with Greek and Roman learning, in the Panchasiddhantika, and wrote the Brihat Samhita, an encyclopaedia that covers astronomy, weather, plants, gems and building. The decimal place-value system, with nine digits and a sign for zero, developed in India in these centuries and later passed to the Arab world and then to Europe. Brahmagupta's Brahmasphutasiddhanta of 628 CE, a little after the Gupta age, sets out rules for working with zero and negative numbers. India's first satellite, launched in 1975, was named Aryabhata in honour of the astronomer.
Major works of the Gupta age and just after
AuthorWorkWhat it is
KalidasaAbhijnanashakuntalam; Meghaduta; RaghuvamshaPlay on Dushyanta and Shakuntala; lyric poem with a cloud as messenger; epic poem on Rama's line
VishakhadattaMudrarakshasa; DevichandraguptamPolitical play on Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya; play on Ramagupta and Chandragupta II
Shudraka (attributed)MrichchhakatikaSocial play: a poor Brahmana merchant and a courtesan
AmarasimhaAmarakoshaSanskrit thesaurus
Vishnu Sharma (traditional)PanchatantraAnimal fables teaching practical wisdom
AryabhataAryabhatiya (499 CE)Astronomy and mathematics: rotation of the earth, eclipses, pi
VarahamihiraPanchasiddhantika; Brihat SamhitaFive astronomical systems; encyclopaedia
BrahmaguptaBrahmasphutasiddhanta (628 CE)Astronomy; rules for zero and negative numbers

ಗುಪ್ತ ಯುಗ ನಿಜವಾಗಿ ಸುವರ್ಣಯುಗವೇ? ಮೇಲ್ವರ್ಗದ ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತಿ ನೋಡಿದರೆ ಹೌದು: ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ, ಮೊದಲ ಕಲ್ಲಿನ ದೇವಾಲಯಗಳು, ಶಿಲ್ಪ, ಅಜಂತಾ ಚಿತ್ರ, ಆರ್ಯಭಟ, ನಾಲಂದಾ. 20ನೇ ಶತಮಾನದ ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯವಾದಿ ಇತಿಹಾಸಕಾರರು ಈ ಹೆಸರನ್ನು ಜನಪ್ರಿಯಗೊಳಿಸಿದರು — ನಮಗೂ ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರೀಯ ಯುಗ ಇತ್ತು ಎಂದು ತೋರಿಸಲು. ನಂತರದ ಇತಿಹಾಸಕಾರರು ಇನ್ನೊಂದು ಮುಖ ತೋರಿಸಿದರು: ಭೂದಾನದಿಂದ ರೈತರ ಮೇಲೆ ತೆರಿಗೆ, ಬಿಟ್ಟಿ ಚಾಕರಿ; ಜಾತಿ ಬಿಗಿತ, ಅಸ್ಪೃಶ್ಯತೆ; ಸ್ತ್ರೀಯರ ಸ್ಥಿತಿ ಕುಸಿತ, ಮೊದಲ ಸತಿ ಸ್ಮಾರಕ; ವ್ಯಾಪಾರ, ಹಳೆಯ ಪಟ್ಟಣಗಳ ಅವನತಿ. ದೊಡ್ಡ ಮನೆಯ ಹಬ್ಬದ ವೈಭವ, ಅದೇ ಮನೆಯ ಆಳಿನ ಕಷ್ಟ — ಎರಡೂ ಸತ್ಯ. (→ English: golden age · Gupta age · हिन्दी: स्वर्ण युग · गुप्त युग)

In exam EnglishWas the Gupta age a golden age? For the culture of the upper classes the claim is strong: classical Sanskrit literature, the first stone temples, Gupta sculpture, Ajanta painting, Aryabhata's astronomy and Nalanda all belong to it. Nationalist historians of the early twentieth century made the label popular, partly to show that India had had a classical age of its own. Later historians stress the other side: land grants that loosened the state's direct hold and burdened peasants with dues and forced labour, a hardening caste order with untouchability, a decline in women's position marked by early marriage and the first dated sati memorial, and the fading of long-distance trade and older towns. A balanced view sees a highly creative age in art and learning, resting on a society that was becoming more unequal. Part 3 turns to Harsha and the north after the empire.

Exam traps

Recap

Practice questions

Q1. Consider the following statements about Gupta administration:
1. A bhukti was a province governed by an uparika.
2. On the district board at Kotivarsha, the prathama-kulika was the chief scribe.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Answer (a). Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is wrong: the prathama-kulika was the chief artisan; the chief scribe was the prathama-kayastha. So (b) and (c) accept the false statement, and (d) rejects the true one.

Q2. The earliest dated memorial of the practice of sati is found in which inscription?

  1. Eran inscription of 510 CE
  2. Junagadh inscription of Skandagupta
  3. Bhitari pillar inscription
  4. Allahabad pillar prashasti
Show answer

Answer: A. Eran inscription of 510 CE

Answer (a). The Eran inscription of 510 CE records that the wife of the commander Goparaja followed him onto the pyre. The Junagadh inscription of Skandagupta concerns the repair of the Sudarshana lake; the Bhitari pillar records Skandagupta's war with the Hunas; the Allahabad prashasti praises Samudragupta's conquests.

Q3. Match List I (work) with List II (author):
List I
A. Mudrarakshasa
B. Mrichchhakatika
C. Amarakosha
D. Panchasiddhantika
List II
1. Amarasimha
2. Varahamihira
3. Vishakhadatta
4. Shudraka
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

  1. A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
  2. A-4, B-3, C-1, D-2
  3. A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1
  4. A-1, B-4, C-3, D-2
Show answer

Answer: A. A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2

Answer (a). Mudrarakshasa is by Vishakhadatta, the Mrichchhakatika is attributed to Shudraka, the Amarakosha is Amarasimha's and the Panchasiddhantika is Varahamihira's. Option (b) swaps the two playwrights; (c) swaps Amarasimha and Varahamihira; (d) gives Mudrarakshasa to Amarasimha and the Amarakosha to Vishakhadatta.

Q4. Consider the following statements about Aryabhata:
1. He wrote the Aryabhatiya in 499 CE.
2. He held that the earth rotates on its axis.
3. He wrote the Brihat Samhita.
Which of the statements given above are correct?

  1. 1 and 2 only
  2. 2 and 3 only
  3. 1 and 3 only
  4. 1, 2 and 3
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 and 2 only

Answer (a). Statements 1 and 2 are correct. Statement 3 is wrong: the Brihat Samhita is by Varahamihira. So (b), (c) and (d) all include the false statement 3.

Q5. Which one of the following Gupta-period temples is built of brick?

  1. Dashavatara temple, Deogarh
  2. Temple 17, Sanchi
  3. Temple at Bhitargaon
  4. Temple at Tigawa
Show answer

Answer: C. Temple at Bhitargaon

Answer (c). The Bhitargaon temple near Kanpur is a brick temple with an early tower. The Deogarh temple is of stone; Sanchi temple 17 and the Tigawa temple are flat-roofed stone shrines.

Q6. Consider the following statements:
1. Agrahara grants to Brahmanas were usually free of tax.
2. In Gupta records, vishti means the king's share of the crop.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Answer (a). Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is wrong: vishti was unpaid forced labour; the king's share of the crop was the bhaga. So (b) and (c) accept the false statement, and (d) rejects the true one.

Q7. Consider the following pairs:
1. Parama-bhagavata : title of the Gupta kings as devotees of Vishnu
2. Valabhi council : writing down of the Shvetambara Jain canon
3. Garuda : emblem of Shiva on Gupta seals
How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

  1. Only one
  2. Only two
  3. All three
  4. None
Show answer

Answer: B. Only two

Answer (b). Pairs 1 and 2 are correct. Pair 3 is wrong: Garuda is the mount of Vishnu, which is why it appears on the seals of the Vishnu-worshipping Guptas. So (a) misses a correct pair, (c) accepts the wrong one and (d) rejects both correct ones.

Q8. Consider the following statements:
1. Most of the later caves and paintings at Ajanta were made under the Vakatakas.
2. The Bagh caves, with paintings in a similar style, are in Maharashtra.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Answer (a). Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is wrong: the Bagh caves are in Madhya Pradesh; Ajanta is the one in Maharashtra. So (b) and (c) accept the false statement, and (d) rejects the true one.

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