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Minerals, mining law and the metallic minerals

ಕನ್ನಡದಲ್ಲಿ ವಿವರಣೆ

Mineral and energy resources of India · Part 1 / 3 · Fact-checked on · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

What minerals and ores are and how they are classified, why India's deposits lie where they do and the mineral belts, who controls minerals under the Seventh Schedule and the MMDR Act (with the 2015 reforms and the 2024 royalty judgment), and the main metallic minerals: iron ore, manganese, chromite, bauxite, copper, lead–zinc and gold, plus critical minerals and lithium.

Each idea is explained first in Kannada (ಕನ್ನಡ), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Kannada and revise it in English.

ಮಣ್ಣು, ಕಾಡು, ನದಿಗಳನ್ನು ಜಾಗರೂಕವಾಗಿ ಬಳಸಿದರೆ ಮತ್ತೆ ತುಂಬಿಕೊಳ್ಳುತ್ತವೆ. ಆದರೆ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು, ಕಬ್ಬಿಣದ ಕಲ್ಲು ಲಕ್ಷಾಂತರ ವರ್ಷಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ರೂಪುಗೊಂಡವು; ಒಮ್ಮೆ ಅಗೆದು ತೆಗೆದರೆ ಮತ್ತೆ ಬರುವುದಿಲ್ಲ. ಬಾವಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ನೀರು ಮತ್ತೆ ಜಿನುಗುತ್ತದೆ, ಆದರೆ ಪೆಟ್ಟಿಗೆಯಲ್ಲಿಟ್ಟ ಚಿನ್ನದ ನಾಣ್ಯ ಖರ್ಚು ಮಾಡಿದರೆ ಮುಗಿಯುತ್ತದೆ; ಇದೂ ಹಾಗೆಯೇ. ಆದರೂ ಸೇತುವೆಗೆ ಉಕ್ಕು, ವಿದ್ಯುತ್ ತಂತಿಗೆ ಅಲ್ಯೂಮಿನಿಯಂ, ವೈರಿಗೆ ತಾಮ್ರ, ಮನೆಗೆ ಸಿಮೆಂಟ್, ವಿದ್ಯುತ್ತಿಗೆ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು ಎಲ್ಲವೂ ಇವುಗಳಿಂದಲೇ. ಈ ಅಧ್ಯಾಯದಲ್ಲಿ ಮೂರು ಭಾಗ: ಲೋಹ ಖನಿಜಗಳು, ನಂತರ ಅಲೋಹ-ಪರಮಾಣು ಖನಿಜಗಳು ಮತ್ತು ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು, ಕೊನೆಗೆ ಪೆಟ್ರೋಲಿಯಂ, ಅನಿಲ, ವಿದ್ಯುತ್. (→ English: mineral resources · हिन्दी: खनिज संसाधन)

In exam EnglishIndia's soils, forests and rivers, studied in the earlier chapters, renew themselves if they are used with care. Minerals do not. Mining can empty in a few decades a deposit that geology needed millions of years to build, and no amount of human effort grows it back. Yet almost everything a modern economy builds rests on them: steel for bridges and rails, aluminium for power lines, copper for wiring, cement for houses and coal for electricity. This part explains what minerals are, why India's deposits lie where they do, who controls them and where the main metallic minerals are found; Part 2 covers the non-metallic and atomic minerals and coal, and Part 3 petroleum, natural gas and electricity.

ಖನಿಜ ಎಂದರೆ ನಿಸರ್ಗದಲ್ಲಿ ಸಿಗುವ, ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ರಾಸಾಯನಿಕ ರಚನೆ ಇರುವ ವಸ್ತು; ಶಿಲೆಗಳು ಖನಿಜಗಳ ಮಿಶ್ರಣ. ಯಾವುದೇ ಕಲ್ಲಿನಲ್ಲಿ ಉಪಯುಕ್ತ ಖನಿಜ ಲಾಭದಲ್ಲಿ ತೆಗೆಯುವಷ್ಟು ಇದ್ದರೆ ಅದು ಅದಿರು. ಉದಾಹರಣೆಗೆ, ಕೊಯ್ಲು ಮುಗಿದ ಹೊಲದಲ್ಲಿ ಸ್ವಲ್ಪ ಕಾಳು ಉಳಿದರೆ ಆರಿಸುವುದು ಕೂಲಿಗೆ ಸಾಲದು; ಬೆಲೆ ಏರಿದರೆ ಆರಿಸುವುದು ಲಾಭ. ಹಾಗೆಯೇ ಬೆಲೆ, ತಂತ್ರಜ್ಞಾನ ಬದಲಾದರೆ ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಕಲ್ಲೂ ಅದಿರಾಗಬಹುದು. ಖನಿಜಗಳು ಮೂರು ಬಗೆ: ಲೋಹ (ಕಬ್ಬಿಣಯುಕ್ತ, ಕಬ್ಬಿಣರಹಿತ, ಅಮೂಲ್ಯ), ಅಲೋಹ (ಅಭ್ರಕ, ಸುಣ್ಣದಕಲ್ಲು), ಶಕ್ತಿ ಖನಿಜಗಳು (ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು, ಪೆಟ್ರೋಲಿಯಂ, ಯುರೇನಿಯಂ). (→ English: mineral; ore · हिन्दी: खनिज; अयस्क)

In exam EnglishA mineral is a substance formed by nature rather than by people, with a fixed chemical composition and its atoms arranged in a regular pattern; rocks are mixtures of one or more minerals. Geologists use the word ore only for rock in which a useful mineral is concentrated enough for mining to pay. So whether a deposit is an ore depends on price and technology, not on geology alone. Minerals are usually sorted into three groups. Metallic minerals yield metals; they are ferrous if they contain iron or serve mainly in making iron and steel (iron ore, manganese, chromite, nickel), non-ferrous if they do not (copper, bauxite, lead, zinc), and precious if they are rare and costly (gold, silver, platinum). Non-metallic minerals such as mica, limestone and gypsum are used for what they are, not for a metal drawn out of them. Energy minerals, namely coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium and thorium, are burnt or split to release energy.

ಪ್ರತಿ ಖನಿಜವೂ ಕೆಲವು ಬಗೆಯ ಶಿಲೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಮಾತ್ರ ಹುಟ್ಟುತ್ತದೆ, ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ಎಲ್ಲೆಡೆ ಇರುವುದಿಲ್ಲ. ಮೀನು ನೀರಿನಲ್ಲಿ, ಹಕ್ಕಿ ಮರದಲ್ಲಿ ಸಿಗುವಂತೆ. ಲೋಹ ಖನಿಜಗಳು ಪರ್ಯಾಯದ್ವೀಪದ ಪ್ರಸ್ಥಭೂಮಿಯ ಬಹಳ ಹಳೆಯ ಅಗ್ನಿಶಿಲೆಗಳು ಮತ್ತು ರೂಪಾಂತರ ಶಿಲೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿವೆ. ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು ನದಿ ಕಣಿವೆಗಳ ಗೊಂಡ್ವಾನ ಸಂಚಿತ ಶಿಲೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿ, ಪೆಟ್ರೋಲಿಯಂ ಹೊಸ ಸಂಚಿತ ಜಲಾನಯನಗಳಲ್ಲಿ (ಅಸ್ಸಾಂ, ಗುಜರಾತ್, ಸಮುದ್ರ). ಹಿಮಾಲಯದಲ್ಲಿ ಗಣಿಗಾರಿಕೆಗೆ ಯೋಗ್ಯವಾದವು ಕಡಿಮೆ. ಅತ್ಯಂತ ಶ್ರೀಮಂತ ವಲಯ ಛೋಟಾನಾಗಪುರ-ಒಡಿಶಾ ಪ್ರಸ್ಥಭೂಮಿ; ನಂತರ ಮಧ್ಯ, ದಕ್ಷಿಣ, ನೈಋತ್ಯ (ಗೋವಾ), ವಾಯವ್ಯ (ಅರಾವಳಿ) ವಲಯಗಳು. (→ English: igneous rocks; metamorphic rocks; sedimentary rocks; plateau · हिन्दी: आग्नेय शैल; कायांतरित शैल; अवसादी शैल; पठार)

In exam EnglishMinerals are not spread evenly, because each forms only in particular kinds of rock. Most of India's metallic minerals lie in the ancient igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks of the Peninsular plateau. India's coal dates mainly from the Gondwana period and survives in sedimentary rocks that subsided into long basins, which the Damodar, Mahanadi, Godavari and Son rivers now drain, while petroleum and natural gas occur in much younger sedimentary basins in Assam, Gujarat and offshore. The young, folded Himalaya have so far yielded few deposits worth mining. On this basis geographers mark out mineral belts. Of these, the richest is the north-eastern plateau belt, which takes in Chota Nagpur and the Odisha plateau: iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite, mica, copper and uranium. The central belt across Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and eastern Maharashtra has iron ore, manganese, coal, bauxite and limestone. The southern belt of the Karnataka plateau and Tamil Nadu has iron ore, gold and lignite; the south-western belt of Goa and coastal Karnataka is known for iron ore; and the north-western belt along the Aravalli in Rajasthan and Gujarat has copper, lead, zinc, gypsum and marble.

ಖನಿಜಗಳ ಮೇಲೆ ಅಧಿಕಾರ ಯಾರದು ಎಂಬುದನ್ನು ಏಳನೇ ಅನುಸೂಚಿ ನಿರ್ಧರಿಸುತ್ತದೆ. ರಾಜ್ಯ ಪಟ್ಟಿ ಯ ನಮೂದು 23 ಗಣಿ ನಿಯಂತ್ರಣವನ್ನು ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳಿಗೆ ಕೊಡುತ್ತದೆ, ಆದರೆ ಕೇಂದ್ರ ಪಟ್ಟಿ ನಮೂದು 54ರಡಿ ಸಂಸತ್ತು ಕಾನೂನು ಮಾಡಿ ಯಾವ ಭಾಗವನ್ನಾದರೂ ತನ್ನ ಕೈಗೆ ತೆಗೆದುಕೊಳ್ಳಬಹುದು. ಮನೆಯ ಅಡುಗೆಮನೆ ಅಮ್ಮನದು, ಆದರೆ ಅಪ್ಪ 'ಈ ಹಬ್ಬದ ಅಡುಗೆ ನಾನು ನೋಡ್ತೀನಿ' ಎಂದು ಘೋಷಿಸಿದರೆ ಅದು ಅವರದಾಗುತ್ತದೆ; ಇದೂ ಹಾಗೆಯೇ. ಪೆಟ್ರೋಲಿಯಂ ಮಾತ್ರ ಸಂಪೂರ್ಣ ಕೇಂದ್ರದ್ದು (ನಮೂದು 53). ಮುಖ್ಯ ಕಾನೂನು 1957ರ ಎಂಎಂಡಿಆರ್ ಕಾಯ್ದೆ: ಕಬ್ಬಿಣದ ಅದಿರು, ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲಿನಂಥ ಪ್ರಮುಖ ಖನಿಜಗಳಿಗೆ ಕೇಂದ್ರದ ನಿಯಮ; ಮರಳು, ಜಲ್ಲಿಯಂಥ ಉಪ ಖನಿಜಗಳಿಗೆ ರಾಜ್ಯದ ನಿಯಮ. (→ English: Seventh Schedule; State List; Union List; MMDR Act · हिन्दी: सातवीं अनुसूची; राज्य सूची; संघ सूची)

In exam EnglishWho controls minerals is settled by the Seventh Schedule. Entry 23 of the State List gives the states the regulation of mines and mineral development, but only subject to Entry 54 of the Union List, under which Parliament may bring any part of that field under Union control by declaring in a law that this is in the public interest. Oilfields, mineral oil and petroleum belong wholly to the Union under Entry 53 of the Union List. Parliament made the declaration in the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957, the MMDR Act, which is still the main mining law. The Act separates major minerals, such as iron ore, bauxite and coal, which are governed by the central Act and rules, from minor minerals, such as building stone, gravel, ordinary clay and ordinary sand, for which each state frames its own rules. The states grant most mining leases and collect the royalty. The Geological Survey of India (set up in 1851, Kolkata) explores for minerals, and the Indian Bureau of Mines (Nagpur) oversees mining and publishes mineral statistics.

ಹಿಂದೆ ಗಣಿ ಗುತ್ತಿಗೆ 'ಮೊದಲು ಬಂದವರಿಗೆ' ಸಿಗುತ್ತಿತ್ತು; ಅದರಲ್ಲಿ ಪಕ್ಷಪಾತಕ್ಕೆ ಅವಕಾಶವಿತ್ತು. 2015ರ ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ ಹರಾಜು ತಂದಿತು: ಜಾತ್ರೆಯ ಅಂಗಡಿ ಜಾಗ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಬೆಲೆ ಕೂಗಿದವರಿಗೆ ಸಿಗುವಂತೆ, ಈಗ ಗಣಿಯೂ. ಗಣಿ ಜಿಲ್ಲೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಜಿಲ್ಲಾ ಖನಿಜ ಪ್ರತಿಷ್ಠಾನದ ನಿಧಿ ತೊಂದರೆಗೊಳಗಾದ ಜನರಿಗಾಗಿ; ಅನ್ವೇಷಣೆಗೆ ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಟ್ರಸ್ಟ್. 2024ರಲ್ಲಿ ಸರ್ವೋಚ್ಚ ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯ ಒಂಬತ್ತು ನ್ಯಾಯಮೂರ್ತಿಗಳ ಪೀಠ 8:1ರಲ್ಲಿ ಹೇಳಿತು: ರಾಯಧನ ತೆರಿಗೆಯಲ್ಲ; ಖನಿಜ ಹಕ್ಕುಗಳ ಮೇಲೆ ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳು ತೆರಿಗೆ ಹಾಕಬಹುದು, ಸಂಸತ್ತು ವಿಧಿಸುವ ಮಿತಿಗೆ ಒಳಪಟ್ಟು. (→ English: Supreme Court; royalty; District Mineral Foundation · हिन्दी: उच्चतम न्यायालय; रॉयल्टी; ज़िला खनिज प्रतिष्ठान)

In exam EnglishFor decades mining leases were given on a first-come, first-served basis, an arrangement that invited favouritism. The MMDR amendment of 2015 replaced it with auctions for major minerals, making allocation transparent. The same amendment created a District Mineral Foundation in every district affected by mining, funded by contributions from leaseholders and meant to be spent on the people and places harmed by mining, and a National Mineral Exploration Trust to pay for exploration. The National Mineral Policy 2019 continues this approach. A separate question was whether royalty is a tax. In Mineral Area Development Authority v. Steel Authority of India (2024), a nine-judge bench of the Supreme Court held by eight to one that royalty is not a tax, and that the states have the power to tax mineral rights under Entry 50 of the State List, subject to any limits Parliament sets by law.

ಕಬ್ಬಿಣದ ಅದಿರು ಉಕ್ಕಿನ ಅಡಿಪಾಯ, ಅಕ್ಕಿ ಅನ್ನಕ್ಕೆ ಅಡಿಪಾಯವಾದಂತೆ. ಎರಡು ಬಗೆ: ಕೆಂಪು ಹೆಮಟೈಟ್ (ಭಾರತದಲ್ಲಿ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ತೆಗೆಯುವುದು), ಕಪ್ಪು ಕಾಂತೀಯ ಮ್ಯಾಗ್ನಟೈಟ್ (ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ಕರ್ನಾಟಕದಲ್ಲಿ). ಉತ್ಪಾದನೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಒಡಿಶಾ ಬಹಳ ಮುಂದೆ; ನಂತರ ಛತ್ತೀಸ್‌ಗಢ, ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ, ಜಾರ್ಖಂಡ್. ಗಣಿಗಳು: ಮಯೂರ್‌ಭಂಜ್ (ಗೋರುಮಹಿಸಾನಿ, ಬಾದಾಂಪಹಾಡ್), ಕಿರಿಬುರು, ನೋವಾಮುಂಡಿ, ಗುವಾ; ಛತ್ತೀಸ್‌ಗಢದಲ್ಲಿ ಬೈಲಾಡಿಲಾ, ಅಲ್ಲಿಂದ ರೈಲಿನಲ್ಲಿ ವಿಶಾಖಪಟ್ಟಣ ಬಂದರು, ನಂತರ ಜಪಾನ್. ಗೋವಾದ ಅದಿರು ಮರ್ಮಗೋವಾ ಮೂಲಕ. ನಮ್ಮ ಕುದುರೆಮುಖ ಗಣಿ ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಉದ್ಯಾನದೊಳಗಿದ್ದ ಕಾರಣ ಸರ್ವೋಚ್ಚ ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯದ ಆದೇಶದಿಂದ ಮುಚ್ಚಿತು. (→ English: iron ore; haematite; magnetite · हिन्दी: लौह अयस्क; हेमेटाइट; मैग्नेटाइट)

In exam EnglishIron ore is the base of the steel industry, and India has large reserves of it. Two ores matter. Haematite, reddish in colour, is the ore mined most in India and feeds most of the country's steel plants. Magnetite, black and magnetic, can be very rich in iron; the bulk of India's magnetite lies in Karnataka. Odisha is by far the largest producer of iron ore, and Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Jharkhand are the other major ones. In the Odisha–Jharkhand belt lie the Gorumahisani and Badampahar mines of Mayurbhanj, Kiriburu on the state border, and Noamundi and Gua in West Singhbhum. High-grade haematite from the Bailadila range in Dantewada district, Chhattisgarh, travels by rail to the port of Visakhapatnam, and a large share of it has gone to Japan. Goa's ore leaves through Mormugao port. Kudremukh, an iron-ore mine in Karnataka's Western Ghats, stopped work in the mid-2000s after the Supreme Court ordered its closure, since the mine sat within a national park.

ಕಬ್ಬಿಣಕ್ಕೆ ಜೊತೆಯಾಗಿ ಬೇಕಾದ ಇನ್ನೆರಡು ಖನಿಜಗಳು. ಸಾರಿಗೆ ಉಪ್ಪು, ಹುಣಸೆ ಜೊತೆಯಾದಂತೆ. ಮ್ಯಾಂಗನೀಸ್ ಉಕ್ಕನ್ನು ಗಟ್ಟಿಯಾಗಿಸುತ್ತದೆ, ಬೇಡದ ಆಮ್ಲಜನಕ, ಗಂಧಕವನ್ನು ತೆಗೆಯುತ್ತದೆ; ಡ್ರೈ ಸೆಲ್ ಬ್ಯಾಟರಿಗಳಲ್ಲೂ ಬಳಕೆ. ನಿಕ್ಷೇಪಗಳು: ಒಡಿಶಾ (ಕೆಂದುಝರ್, ಸುಂದರ್‌ಗಢ), ಮಧ್ಯಪ್ರದೇಶ (ಬಾಲಾಘಾಟ್), ಮಹಾರಾಷ್ಟ್ರ (ನಾಗಪುರ, ಭಂಡಾರಾ), ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ. ಕ್ರೋಮೈಟ್ ಸ್ಟೇನ್‌ಲೆಸ್ ಉಕ್ಕನ್ನು ತುಕ್ಕು ಹಿಡಿಯದಂತೆ ಮಾಡುತ್ತದೆ; ಬಹುತೇಕ ಎಲ್ಲವೂ ಒಡಿಶಾದಲ್ಲೇ, ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ಜಾಜ್‌ಪುರ ಜಿಲ್ಲೆಯ ಸುಕಿಂದಾ ಕಣಿವೆಯಲ್ಲಿ. (→ English: manganese; chromite · हिन्दी: मैंगनीज़; क्रोमाइट)

In exam EnglishTwo other ferrous minerals are needed mainly as partners of iron. Manganese is added during steel-making to make the steel tough and to remove unwanted oxygen and sulphur; it is also used in dry-cell batteries and some chemicals. Its ores occur in old metamorphic rocks, and the main deposits are in Odisha (Keonjhar and Sundargarh), Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat), Maharashtra (Nagpur and Bhandara) and Karnataka. MOIL, the public-sector company that mines much of India's manganese, is based in Nagpur. Chromite, the ore of chromium, gives stainless steel its resistance to rust and is used in chrome plating and in heat-resistant bricks for furnaces. Here India's resources are unusually concentrated: almost all of them lie in Odisha, mostly in the Sukinda valley of Jajpur district.

ಬಾಕ್ಸೈಟ್ ಅಲ್ಯೂಮಿನಿಯಂನ ಅದಿರು; ಅಲ್ಯೂಮಿನಿಯಂ ಹಗುರ, ವಿದ್ಯುತ್ ಚೆನ್ನಾಗಿ ಹರಿಸುತ್ತದೆ, ತುಕ್ಕು ಹಿಡಿಯುವುದಿಲ್ಲ, ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ವಿದ್ಯುತ್ ತಂತಿ, ವಿಮಾನ, ಪ್ಯಾಕಿಂಗ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ. ಬಿಸಿ ಮತ್ತು ಭಾರಿ ಮಳೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಶಿಥಿಲೀಕರಣ ನಡೆದು ಮಳೆ ಸಿಲಿಕಾವನ್ನು ತೊಳೆದು ಅಲ್ಯೂಮಿನಿಯಂ ಆಕ್ಸೈಡ್ ಉಳಿಸುತ್ತದೆ; ಹಿಟ್ಟು ಜರಡಿ ಹಿಡಿದರೆ ತೌಡು ಹೋಗಿ ಹಿಟ್ಟು ಉಳಿಯುವಂತೆ. ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ಚಪ್ಪಟೆ ಬೆಟ್ಟಗಳ ಮೇಲೆ ಸಿಗುತ್ತದೆ. ಒಡಿಶಾ ಮುಂಚೂಣಿ (ಕೋರಾಪುಟ್ ಪಂಚಪಟ್ಮಾಲಿ). ನಿಯಮಗಿರಿ ಪ್ರಕರಣದಲ್ಲಿ (2013) ಸರ್ವೋಚ್ಚ ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯ ಡೋಂಗ್ರಿಯಾ ಕೋಂಧ್ ಹಳ್ಳಿಗಳ ಗ್ರಾಮಸಭೆ ನಿರ್ಧರಿಸಬೇಕೆಂದಿತು; ಗ್ರಾಮಸಭೆಗಳು ಗಣಿಯನ್ನು ತಿರಸ್ಕರಿಸಿದವು. (→ English: bauxite; weathering; Gram Sabha · हिन्दी: बॉक्साइट; अपक्षय; ग्राम सभा)

In exam EnglishBauxite is the ore of aluminium, a light metal that conducts electricity well and does not rust, which is why it goes into power lines, aircraft, vehicles and packaging. Bauxite forms by intense weathering of rocks rich in aluminium silicates under heat and heavy rain: the rain carries away the silica and leaves aluminium oxides behind, much as in the making of laterite. Deposits therefore often cap flat-topped hills and plateaus. Odisha has India's largest reserves and output, and the Panchpatmali deposit in Koraput district feeds the public-sector company NALCO. Other areas are Jharkhand (Lohardaga), Chhattisgarh (Mainpat), Gujarat, Maharashtra (Kolhapur) and Madhya Pradesh (Katni). Bauxite also gave rise to a landmark dispute. In Orissa Mining Corporation v. Ministry of Environment and Forests (2013), the Supreme Court ruled that the Gram Sabha of the villages in the Niyamgiri hills, home of the Dongria Kondh, should decide whether the proposed mine would affect their religious and cultural rights. The gram sabhas rejected it, and the environment ministry then refused clearance.

ತಾಮ್ರ ವಿದ್ಯುತ್ತನ್ನು ಚೆನ್ನಾಗಿ ಹರಿಸುತ್ತದೆ, ವೈರು, ಮೋಟಾರಿಗೆ ಬೇಕು; ಆದರೆ ನಾವು ಬಳಸುವುದಕ್ಕಿಂತ ಕಡಿಮೆ ತೆಗೆಯುತ್ತೇವೆ, ಉಳಿದದ್ದು ಆಮದು. ಗಣಿಗಳು: ರಾಜಸ್ಥಾನದ ಖೇತ್ರಿ, ಮಧ್ಯಪ್ರದೇಶದ ಮಲಾಂಜ್‌ಖಂಡ್, ಜಾರ್ಖಂಡ್‌ನ ಸಿಂಗ್‌ಭೂಮ್. ಸೀಸ ಮತ್ತು ಸತು ಜೊತೆಯಾಗಿ ಸಿಗುತ್ತವೆ, ಬಹುತೇಕ ರಾಜಸ್ಥಾನದಲ್ಲೇ: ರಾಮಪುರ ಅಗುಚಾ, ಜಾವರ್. ಸತು ಉಕ್ಕಿಗೆ ತುಕ್ಕು ಬಾರದಂತೆ ಲೇಪನ (ತಗಡಿನ ಬೆಳ್ಳಿ ಬಣ್ಣ ನೆನಪಿದೆಯೇ?), ಸೀಸ ಬ್ಯಾಟರಿಗೆ. ಚಿನ್ನ: ನಮ್ಮ ಕೋಲಾರ ಗಣಿಗಳು 2001ರಲ್ಲಿ ಮುಚ್ಚಿದವು; ಈಗ ಮುಖ್ಯ ಗಣಿ ರಾಯಚೂರಿನ ಹಟ್ಟಿ. (→ English: copper; lead and zinc; gold · हिन्दी: ताँबा; सीसा और जस्ता; सोना)

In exam EnglishCopper, an excellent conductor, is vital for electrical wiring, motors and electronics, but India mines far less than it uses and imports much of its copper ore and concentrate. The main deposits are the Khetri–Singhana belt in Jhunjhunu district of Rajasthan, the Malanjkhand mine in Balaghat district of Madhya Pradesh and the Singhbhum copper belt of Jharkhand around Ghatsila; Hindustan Copper Limited runs the public-sector mines. Lead and zinc usually occur together, and in India they are almost a Rajasthan monopoly: Rampura Agucha in Bhilwara district is one of the world's largest zinc mines, and Zawar near Udaipur is another major centre. Zinc is used mostly to coat steel against rust (galvanising), lead mostly in batteries. The Kolar Gold Fields of Karnataka closed in 2001, leaving Hutti in Raichur district, also in Karnataka, as the main working gold mine; India meets most of its demand for gold through imports.
India's main metallic minerals at a glance
MineralMain useLeading areas
Iron ore (haematite, magnetite)Iron and steelOdisha (Mayurbhanj, Kiriburu), Chhattisgarh (Bailadila), Jharkhand (Noamundi, Gua), Karnataka, Goa
ManganeseToughening steel, dry cellsOdisha (Keonjhar), Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat), Maharashtra (Nagpur, Bhandara)
ChromiteStainless steel, plating, furnace bricksOdisha (Sukinda valley, Jajpur)
BauxiteAluminiumOdisha (Panchpatmali, Koraput), Jharkhand (Lohardaga), Chhattisgarh, Gujarat
CopperWiring, motorsRajasthan (Khetri), Madhya Pradesh (Malanjkhand), Jharkhand (Singhbhum)
Lead and zincBatteries; galvanisingRajasthan (Rampura Agucha, Zawar)
GoldJewellery, reservesKarnataka (Hutti; Kolar closed in 2001)

ನಿರ್ಣಾಯಕ ಖನಿಜಗಳು ಎಂದರೆ ದೇಶದ ಆರ್ಥಿಕತೆ ಮತ್ತು ಭದ್ರತೆಗೆ ಅಗತ್ಯವಾದರೂ ಪೂರೈಕೆ ಅಪಾಯದಲ್ಲಿರುವ ಖನಿಜಗಳು: ಲಿಥಿಯಂ, ಕೋಬಾಲ್ಟ್, ನಿಕ್ಕಲ್, ಗ್ರಾಫೈಟ್, ಅಪರೂಪದ ಮೃತ್ತಿಕೆಗಳು. ವಿದ್ಯುತ್ ವಾಹನದ ಬ್ಯಾಟರಿ, ಸೌರ ಫಲಕ ಇವುಗಳಿಂದಲೇ. ಊರೆಲ್ಲ ಒಂದೇ ಬಾವಿಯನ್ನು ನಂಬಿದ್ದರೆ, ಮಾಲೀಕ ನೀರು ನಿಲ್ಲಿಸಿದರೆ ಕಷ್ಟ; ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ಸ್ವಂತ ಮೂಲ ಬೇಕು. 2023ರಲ್ಲಿ 30 ನಿರ್ಣಾಯಕ ಖನಿಜಗಳ ಪಟ್ಟಿ; ಅದೇ ವರ್ಷದ ಕಾನೂನು ತಿದ್ದುಪಡಿ ಲಿಥಿಯಂ ಅನ್ನು ಪರಮಾಣು ಪಟ್ಟಿಯಿಂದ ತೆಗೆದು ಖಾಸಗಿಗೆ ತೆರೆಯಿತು. ಜಮ್ಮು-ಕಾಶ್ಮೀರದ ರಿಯಾಸಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಲಿಥಿಯಂ ಅಂದಾಜು ಸಂಪನ್ಮೂಲ ಸಿಕ್ಕಿದೆ, ಇನ್ನೂ ಸಾಬೀತಾದ ನಿಕ್ಷೇಪವಲ್ಲ. 2025ರಲ್ಲಿ ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ನಿರ್ಣಾಯಕ ಖನಿಜ ಮಿಷನ್. (→ English: critical minerals · हिन्दी: महत्वपूर्ण खनिज)

In exam EnglishA newer group has become strategic. critical minerals are those essential to the economy and to national security whose supply is at risk, because deposits are scarce or production is concentrated in a few countries. Batteries for electric vehicles, solar panels, wind turbines and electronics need lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite and rare earth elements. In 2023 the Ministry of Mines identified 30 critical minerals for India. The MMDR amendment of the same year let the Union government auction blocks of these minerals itself, and removed six minerals, lithium among them, from the list of atomic minerals reserved for government agencies, opening them to private miners. Also in 2023 the Geological Survey of India reported an inferred lithium resource of about 5.9 million tonnes at Salal-Haimana in the Reasi district of Jammu and Kashmir; an inferred resource is an early estimate, not a proven reserve. In 2025 the Union Cabinet approved a National Critical Mineral Mission to step up exploration, mining, processing and recycling at home and to acquire mineral assets abroad.

ಒಟ್ಟಾರೆ ನೋಡಿದರೆ: ಹಳೆಯ ಪರ್ಯಾಯದ್ವೀಪ ಶಿಲೆಗಳು, ಮುಖ್ಯವಾಗಿ ಛೋಟಾನಾಗಪುರ-ಒಡಿಶಾ, ಲೋಹ ಖನಿಜಗಳ ಭಂಡಾರ; ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ಉಕ್ಕು, ಅಲ್ಯೂಮಿನಿಯಂ ಕಾರ್ಖಾನೆಗಳು ಅಲ್ಲೇ. ಖನಿಜ ಎಲ್ಲಿರಬಹುದು ಎಂಬುದನ್ನು ಭೂವಿಜ್ಞಾನ ನಿರ್ಧರಿಸುತ್ತದೆ; ಅಗೆಯಬೇಕೇ ಬೇಡವೇ ಎಂಬುದನ್ನು ಬೆಲೆ, ತಂತ್ರಜ್ಞಾನ, ಕಾನೂನು. ಗಣಿಗಳು ಹಲವೊಮ್ಮೆ ಕಾಡು ಮತ್ತು ಆದಿವಾಸಿ ಹಳ್ಳಿಗಳ ಕೆಳಗಿರುತ್ತವೆ; ಮನೆಯ ನೆಲದಡಿ ನಿಧಿ ಇದ್ದರೂ ಮನೆ ಕೆಡವಿ ಅಗೆಯಲಾಗದಲ್ಲ, ಹಾಗೆ ಆದಾಯ ಮತ್ತು ಜನರ ಹಕ್ಕುಗಳನ್ನು ತೂಗಬೇಕು. ಕಬ್ಬಿಣ, ಬಾಕ್ಸೈಟ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ ಸ್ವಾವಲಂಬನೆ; ತಾಮ್ರ, ಚಿನ್ನ, ನಿರ್ಣಾಯಕ ಖನಿಜಗಳಿಗೆ ಆಮದು. (→ English: metallic minerals; self-reliance · हिन्दी: धात्विक खनिज; आत्मनिर्भरता)

In exam EnglishPut together, the pattern is clear. The ancient rocks of the Peninsula, above all the Chota Nagpur–Odisha plateau, hold most of the metallic minerals, which is why steel and aluminium plants grew up near them. Geology decides where a mineral can exist; price, technology and law decide whether it is mined; and the Constitution divides power over it between the Union and the states, with the courts settling disputes over money and rights. Because deposits often lie under forests and tribal homelands, mining has to be weighed against conservation and the rights of local people. India is self-reliant in iron ore and bauxite but depends on imports for copper, gold and most critical minerals, which is why exploration now gets so much attention. Part 2 turns to the non-metallic and atomic minerals and to coal, India's main source of energy.

Exam traps

Recap

Practice questions

Q1. The Sukinda valley in Odisha is best known for deposits of which mineral?

  1. Manganese
  2. Chromite
  3. Bauxite
  4. Mica
Show answer

Answer: B. Chromite

Almost all of India's chromite lies in Odisha, mostly in the Sukinda valley of Jajpur district. Manganese is linked with Balaghat, Keonjhar and Nagpur–Bhandara; bauxite with Panchpatmali in Koraput; and mica with the Koderma belt of Jharkhand, not Sukinda.

Q2. Consider the following statements:
1. Under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957, minor minerals such as ordinary sand and building stone are regulated by rules made by state governments.
2. Regulation and development of oilfields and mineral oil resources is an entry in the State List.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct: the states frame rules for minor minerals. Statement 2 is wrong: oilfields and mineral oil fall under Entry 53 of the Union List. So '2 only' and 'both' accept a wrong statement, and 'neither' rejects a correct one.

Q3. Match List I (mine) with List II (mineral):
List I
A. Malanjkhand
B. Rampura Agucha
C. Bailadila
D. Panchpatmali
List II
1. Zinc and lead
2. Copper
3. Bauxite
4. Iron ore
Select the correct answer using the code given below.

  1. A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
  2. A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
  3. A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
  4. A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3
Show answer

Answer: A. A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3

Malanjkhand (Madhya Pradesh) is a copper mine, Rampura Agucha (Rajasthan) a zinc–lead mine, Bailadila (Chhattisgarh) an iron-ore field and Panchpatmali (Odisha) a bauxite deposit. The second code swaps copper and zinc, the third swaps iron ore and bauxite, and the fourth puts iron ore at Malanjkhand and copper at Bailadila.

Q4. With reference to the Supreme Court's judgment in Mineral Area Development Authority v. Steel Authority of India (2024), consider the following statements:
1. Royalty paid by a mining lessee was held to be a tax.
2. The states were held to have the power to tax mineral rights, subject to limits that Parliament may impose by law.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: B. 2 only

The nine-judge bench held by eight to one that royalty is not a tax, so statement 1 is wrong, and that the states may tax mineral rights under Entry 50 of the State List, subject to limits set by Parliament, so statement 2 is correct. '1 only' and 'both' accept the wrong statement; 'neither' rejects the correct one.

Q5. Consider the following statements:
1. In 2023 the Ministry of Mines identified 30 minerals as critical for India.
2. The lithium found in the Reasi district of Jammu and Kashmir has been established as a proven reserve and is already being mined.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is wrong: the Geological Survey of India reported an inferred resource in 2023, which is an early estimate, not a proven reserve under production. So '2 only' and 'both' accept the wrong statement, and 'neither' rejects the correct one.

Q6. Which of the following are ferrous minerals?
1. Manganese
2. Chromite
3. Bauxite
4. Copper
Select the correct answer using the code given below.

  1. 1 and 2 only
  2. 1, 2 and 3 only
  3. 3 and 4 only
  4. 1 and 4 only
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 and 2 only

Manganese and chromite are ferrous because they are used mainly with iron in making steel. Bauxite (aluminium) and copper are non-ferrous, so every option that includes 3 or 4 is wrong.

Q7. The amendment of 2015 to the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act introduced which of the following?
1. Auction as the method of granting concessions for major minerals
2. District Mineral Foundations in districts affected by mining
3. A National Mineral Exploration Trust
Select the correct answer using the code given below.

  1. 1 and 2 only
  2. 2 and 3 only
  3. 1 and 3 only
  4. 1, 2 and 3
Show answer

Answer: D. 1, 2 and 3

The 2015 amendment did all three: it replaced first-come, first-served with auctions, set up District Mineral Foundations funded by leaseholders, and created the National Mineral Exploration Trust. Each of the other codes leaves out one of these.

Q8. Consider the following statements about bauxite:
1. It forms by intense weathering under hot and wet conditions, in which silica is washed away and aluminium oxides remain.
2. Odisha has the largest bauxite reserves in India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: C. Both 1 and 2

Both statements are correct: bauxite is a residue of deep weathering that removes silica, and Odisha leads India in bauxite reserves and output. '1 only' and '2 only' each reject a correct statement, and 'neither' rejects both.

All partsNext: Part 2 →

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