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English · हिन्दी · తెలుగు · தமிழ் · മലയാളം · मराठी · ಕನ್ನಡ

Non-metallic and atomic minerals, and coal

ಕನ್ನಡದಲ್ಲಿ ವಿವರಣೆ

Mineral and energy resources of India · Part 2 / 3 · Fact-checked on · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

Mica, limestone, dolomite, gypsum and rock phosphate with their uses and areas; uranium and thorium and the three-stage nuclear programme; how coal forms and its grades; the Gondwana coalfields, Tertiary coal and lignite; the quality of Indian coal; and coal policy from nationalisation to commercial mining.

Each idea is explained first in Kannada (ಕನ್ನಡ), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Kannada and revise it in English.

ಮೊದಲ ಭಾಗ ಲೋಹಗಳ ಬಗ್ಗೆ. ಈಗ ನೆಲದಿಂದ ತೆಗೆದ ರೂಪದಲ್ಲೇ ಬಳಸುವ ಖನಿಜಗಳು: ವಿದ್ಯುತ್ ಸಾಮಗ್ರಿಗೆ ಅಭ್ರಕ, ಸಿಮೆಂಟಿಗೆ ಸುಣ್ಣದಕಲ್ಲು, ಗೊಬ್ಬರಕ್ಕೆ ಫಾಸ್ಫೇಟ್. ನಂತರ ಪರಮಾಣು ಖನಿಜಗಳು ಯುರೇನಿಯಂ, ಥೋರಿಯಂ. ಕೊನೆಗೆ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು: ನಮ್ಮ ವಿದ್ಯುತ್ತಿನ ಹೆಚ್ಚಿನ ಭಾಗ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು ವಿದ್ಯುತ್ ಸ್ಥಾವರಗಳಿಂದಲೇ; ಮನೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಫ್ಯಾನ್ ತಿರುಗಿದರೂ ಬಲ್ಬ್ ಉರಿದರೂ ಅದರ ಹಿಂದೆ ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲೇ. ಉಕ್ಕಿಗೆ ಕೋಕ್ ಕೂಡ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲಿನಿಂದಲೇ. (→ English: non-metallic minerals; atomic minerals; coal · हिन्दी: अधात्विक खनिज; परमाणु खनिज; कोयला)

In exam EnglishPart 1 dealt with the metallic minerals, valued for the metal locked inside them. This part turns first to minerals that industry uses largely as they come out of the ground: mica for electrical goods, limestone and dolomite for cement and steel, gypsum and rock phosphate for building materials and fertiliser. It then looks at the atomic minerals, uranium and thorium, which fuel India's nuclear programme. The longest section is on coal. Coal-fired power stations generate most of India's electricity, coal is baked into coke for steel, and the coalfields have shaped the industrial map of eastern and central India. Understanding where coal lies, why its quality varies and how its mining has been governed explains a great deal about India's energy choices, which Part 3 completes with petroleum, natural gas and electricity.

ಅಭ್ರಕ ಪುಸ್ತಕದ ಹಾಳೆಗಳಂತೆ ತುಂಬ ತೆಳುವಾದ, ಪಾರದರ್ಶಕ ಪದರಗಳಾಗಿ ಬಿಡಿಸಿಕೊಳ್ಳುತ್ತದೆ. ವಿದ್ಯುತ್ ಹರಿಸುವುದಿಲ್ಲ, ಬಿಸಿಯನ್ನು ತಡೆಯುತ್ತದೆ, ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ವಿದ್ಯುತ್ ಉಪಕರಣಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ನಿರೋಧಕವಾಗಿ ಬಳಕೆ. ಮುಖ್ಯ ಪ್ರದೇಶಗಳು: ಜಾರ್ಖಂಡ್‌ನ ಕೋಡರ್ಮಾ-ಗಿರಿಡೀಹ್ (ಒಮ್ಮೆ ಅಭ್ರಕದ ರಾಜಧಾನಿ), ಆಂಧ್ರದ ನೆಲ್ಲೂರು, ರಾಜಸ್ಥಾನದ ಭಿಲ್ವಾರಾ-ಅಜ್ಮೀರ್. ಒಮ್ಮೆ ಜಗತ್ತಿಗೆ ಹಾಳೆ ಅಭ್ರಕ ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ಭಾರತದಿಂದಲೇ; ಕೃತಕ ವಸ್ತುಗಳು ಬಂದ ಮೇಲೆ ಬೇಡಿಕೆ ಇಳಿಯಿತು. ಖನಿಜದ ಬೆಲೆ ತಂತ್ರಜ್ಞಾನವನ್ನು ಅವಲಂಬಿಸಿದೆ ಎಂಬುದನ್ನು ಇದು ತೋರಿಸುತ್ತದೆ. (→ English: mica; insulator · हिन्दी: अभ्रक; कुचालक)

In exam EnglishMica is a mineral that splits into very thin, flexible, transparent sheets. It does not conduct electricity, withstands high temperatures and resists moisture, so it has long been used as an insulator in electrical and electronic equipment, as well as in paints and cosmetics. Muscovite, the light-coloured variety, is the chief commercial mica. India's main belts are the Koderma–Giridih–Hazaribagh area of Jharkhand, once known as the country's mica capital, the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh, and the Bhilwara and Ajmer areas of Rajasthan. India was long the world's leading supplier of sheet mica, but demand for it fell as synthetic insulators replaced it in many uses, and much of the remaining output now comes from small, scattered workings. The mica story shows that a mineral's value depends on technology: a deposit prized in one era can lose its market in the next.

ಸುಣ್ಣದಕಲ್ಲು ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ಕ್ಯಾಲ್ಸಿಯಂ ಕಾರ್ಬೊನೇಟ್; ಹಳೆಯ ಸಮುದ್ರ ಜೀವಿಗಳ ಚಿಪ್ಪು, ಅಸ್ಥಿಪಂಜರಗಳಿಂದಾದ ಸಂಚಿತ ಶಿಲೆ. ಮುಖ್ಯ ಬಳಕೆ ಸಿಮೆಂಟ್; ಉಕ್ಕಿನ ಕುಲುಮೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಕಬ್ಬಿಣದ ಅದಿರಿನ ಕೊಳೆಯನ್ನು ಹಿಡಿದು ಕಿಟ್ಟವಾಗಿ ಹೊರಹಾಕುತ್ತದೆ, ಸಾಬೂನು ಕೊಳೆ ಹಿಡಿಯುವಂತೆ. ಸಿಮೆಂಟ್ ಭಾರ, ಅಗ್ಗ ಆದ್ದರಿಂದ ಕಾರ್ಖಾನೆಗಳು ಸುಣ್ಣದಕಲ್ಲು ಕ್ವಾರಿಗಳ ಬಳಿಯೇ. ಡೋಲಮೈಟ್ ಕೂಡ ಉಕ್ಕಿನ ಕಾರ್ಖಾನೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಅದೇ ಕೆಲಸ. ಬಿಸಿ ಮತ್ತು ಒತ್ತಡದಿಂದ ಸುಣ್ಣದಕಲ್ಲು ಅಮೃತಶಿಲೆಯಾಗುತ್ತದೆ; ತಾಜ್‌ಮಹಲ್‌ನ ಮಕ್ರಾನಾ ಅಮೃತಶಿಲೆ ಉದಾಹರಣೆ. (→ English: limestone; flux; marble · हिन्दी: चूना-पत्थर; गालक; संगमरमर)

In exam EnglishLimestone is a sedimentary rock made mostly of calcium carbonate, often built from the shells and skeletons of ancient sea creatures. It is the basic raw material of cement, which takes the greater part of the limestone mined in India; it is also used as a flux in blast furnaces, where it combines with impurities in iron ore to form slag, and in the chemical, glass and paper industries. Deposits are widespread across the Peninsula, with large ones in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. Because cement is heavy and cheap, cement plants are usually built close to limestone quarries. Dolomite, a carbonate of calcium and magnesium, is used for the same flux role in steel plants and in heat-resistant linings; Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh are major sources. When limestone is changed by heat and pressure it becomes marble, a metamorphic rock; the white marble of Makrana in Rajasthan, used in the Taj Mahal, is the best-known Indian example.

ಜಿಪ್ಸಂ ಉಪ್ಪುನೀರು ಆವಿಯಾಗುವಲ್ಲಿ ರೂಪುಗೊಳ್ಳುತ್ತದೆ, ಉಪ್ಪಿನ ಗದ್ದೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಉಪ್ಪು ಉಳಿಯುವಂತೆ; ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ಒಣ ವಾಯವ್ಯದಲ್ಲಿ, ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ರಾಜಸ್ಥಾನದಲ್ಲಿ. ಸಿಮೆಂಟ್ ಬೇಗ ಗಟ್ಟಿಯಾಗದಂತೆ ಸ್ವಲ್ಪ ಜಿಪ್ಸಂ ಸೇರಿಸುತ್ತಾರೆ; ಪ್ಲಾಸ್ಟರ್ ಆಫ್ ಪ್ಯಾರಿಸ್‌ಗೆ, ಕ್ಷಾರ (ಚೌಳು) ಮಣ್ಣು ಸುಧಾರಣೆಗೂ. ರಾಕ್ ಫಾಸ್ಫೇಟ್ ಗೊಬ್ಬರದ ಕಚ್ಚಾವಸ್ತು: ರಾಜಸ್ಥಾನದ ಝಾಮರ್‌ಕೋಟ್ರಾ, ಮಧ್ಯಪ್ರದೇಶದ ಝಾಬುವಾ. ನಮ್ಮ ಉತ್ಪಾದನೆ ಸಾಲದು; ಫಾಸ್ಫೇಟ್ ಬಹುಪಾಲು, ಪೊಟ್ಯಾಷ್ ಬಹುತೇಕ ಸಂಪೂರ್ಣ ಆಮದು. ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ಜಾಗತಿಕ ಬೆಲೆ ಏರಿದರೆ ಗೊಬ್ಬರದ ಬೆಲೆಯೂ ಏರುತ್ತದೆ. (→ English: gypsum; rock phosphate; potash · हिन्दी: जिप्सम; रॉक फॉस्फेट; पोटाश)

In exam EnglishTwo more non-metallic minerals matter for building and farming. Gypsum, a hydrated calcium sulphate, forms where salty water evaporates, which is why it is found mainly in the dry north-west; Rajasthan, especially Bikaner, Nagaur, Barmer and Jaisalmer, produces most of India's output. A little gypsum is mixed into cement to slow its setting; it is also used to make plaster of Paris and fertiliser, and spread on alkaline (usar) soils to reclaim them, a use met in the chapter on soils. Rock phosphate is the raw material for phosphatic fertilisers. India's main deposits are at Jhamarkotra near Udaipur in Rajasthan and in the Jhabua area of Madhya Pradesh, with smaller ones in Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Domestic output covers only part of the need, so India imports much of its rock phosphate and phosphoric acid, and almost all its potash. This dependence on imported fertiliser minerals makes food security sensitive to world prices.

ಪರಮಾಣು ಖನಿಜಗಳು ಪರಮಾಣು ವಿದ್ಯುತ್ತಿನ ಇಂಧನ. ಯುರೇನಿಯಂ ಜಾರ್ಖಂಡ್‌ನ ಜಾದುಗುಡಾ (1967, ಮೊದಲ ಗಣಿ), ಆಂಧ್ರದ ಕಡಪ ಜಿಲ್ಲೆಯ ತುಮ್ಮಲಪಲ್ಲೆಯಿಂದ. ನಮ್ಮಲ್ಲಿ ಯುರೇನಿಯಂ ಕಡಿಮೆ, ಥೋರಿಯಂ ಹೇರಳ. ಥೋರಿಯಂ ಮೋನಜೈಟ್ ಎಂಬ ಭಾರವಾದ ಖನಿಜದಲ್ಲಿದೆ; ಅದು ಕೇರಳ, ತಮಿಳುನಾಡು, ಒಡಿಶಾದ ಕಡಲತೀರದ ಮರಳಿನಲ್ಲಿ. ಜೇಬಿನಲ್ಲಿ ಚಿಲ್ಲರೆ ಕಡಿಮೆ, ಬ್ಯಾಂಕಿನಲ್ಲಿ ದೊಡ್ಡ ನೋಟು ಹೆಚ್ಚಿರುವವನು ಮೊದಲು ಚಿಲ್ಲರೆಯಿಂದ ಶುರುಮಾಡಿ ನಂತರ ದೊಡ್ಡ ನೋಟು ಮುರಿಸುವಂತೆ, ಭಾಭಾ ಅವರ ಮೂರು ಹಂತದ ಕಾರ್ಯಕ್ರಮ: ಯುರೇನಿಯಂ, ನಂತರ ಪ್ಲುಟೋನಿಯಂ, ಕೊನೆಗೆ ಥೋರಿಯಂ. (→ English: monazite; thorium; three-stage nuclear programme · हिन्दी: मोनाज़ाइट; थोरियम; त्रि-चरणीय नाभिकीय कार्यक्रम)

In exam EnglishAtomic minerals supply the fuel for nuclear power. Uranium is mined at Jaduguda in the East Singhbhum district of Jharkhand, India's first uranium mine, opened in 1967, and at Tummalapalle in the Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh, a large but low-grade deposit; both are worked by the public-sector Uranium Corporation of India. India's uranium is limited and much of it is low-grade, but its thorium is abundant. Thorium occurs in monazite, a heavy mineral concentrated in the beach sands of Kerala (around Chavara), Tamil Nadu and Odisha, which also yields rare earth elements. This mismatch shaped the three-stage nuclear programme planned by Homi Bhabha: reactors burning natural uranium first, then fast breeder reactors using the plutonium they produce, and finally reactors running on thorium. Atomic minerals are explored by the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research, based in Hyderabad, and their mining is reserved for government agencies.

ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು ಮರಗಿಡಗಳ ಅವಶೇಷದಿಂದಾದ ಶಿಲೆ. ಹಳೆಯ ಜೌಗು ನೆಲಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಮರಗಳು ರಾಶಿಯಾಗಿ, ಮಣ್ಣಿನಡಿ ಹೂತು, ಲಕ್ಷಾಂತರ ವರ್ಷಗಳ ಬಿಸಿ-ಒತ್ತಡದಿಂದ ನೀರು, ಅನಿಲ ಹೊರಹೋಗಿ ಇಂಗಾಲ ಹೆಚ್ಚಿತು; ಹಸಿ ಸೌದೆಗಿಂತ ಒಣ ಸೌದೆ, ಅದಕ್ಕಿಂತ ಇದ್ದಿಲು ಚೆನ್ನಾಗಿ ಉರಿಯುವಂತೆ. ಹಂತಗಳು: ಪೀಟ್ (ತೇವ, ಹೊಗೆ ಹೆಚ್ಚು), ಲಿಗ್ನೈಟ್ (ಕಂದು ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು), ಬಿಟುಮಿನಸ್ (ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಬಳಕೆಯದು), ಆಂಥ್ರಸೈಟ್ (ಅತ್ಯುತ್ತಮ, ನಮ್ಮಲ್ಲಿ ಬಹಳ ಕಡಿಮೆ). ಕೋಕಿಂಗ್ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು ಗಾಳಿಯಿಲ್ಲದೆ ಸುಟ್ಟರೆ ಕೋಕ್ ಆಗುತ್ತದೆ, ಉಕ್ಕಿನ ಕುಲುಮೆಗೆ; ಉಳಿದದ್ದು ವಿದ್ಯುತ್ ಸ್ಥಾವರಗಳಿಗೆ. (→ English: lignite; coking coal; bituminous; anthracite · हिन्दी: लिग्नाइट; कोकिंग कोयला; बिटुमिनस; एन्थ्रेसाइट)

In exam EnglishCoal is a rock made from plant remains. In ancient swamps, dead trees and plants piled up faster than they could rot, were buried under sediment, and over millions of years heat and pressure drove out water and gases and raised their carbon content. The longer and deeper this process, the higher the grade. Peat, the first stage, is soft and wet and burns with much smoke. lignite, or brown coal, has more carbon but still a lot of moisture. Bituminous coal, the most widely used grade, is harder and gives more heat; anthracite, the highest grade, is hard, shiny and burns with little smoke, but India has very little of it, mainly in Jammu and Kashmir. Use divides coal further. coking coal is bituminous coal that, when baked without air, fuses into coke, the fuel and reducing agent of blast furnaces; non-coking or thermal coal is burnt in power stations, cement kilns and brick kilns.

ನಮ್ಮ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲಿನಲ್ಲಿ ಬಹುತೇಕ ಎಲ್ಲವೂ ಗೊಂಡ್ವಾನ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು; 25 ಕೋಟಿ ವರ್ಷಕ್ಕೂ ಹಳೆಯದು, ಪರ್ಯಾಯದ್ವೀಪದ ನದಿ ಕಣಿವೆಗಳ ತಗ್ಗು ಗುಂಡಿಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಉಳಿದದ್ದು. ದಾಮೋದರ್ ಕಣಿವೆ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು ಉದ್ಯಮದ ಹೃದಯ: ರಾಣಿಗಂಜ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ 1774ರಲ್ಲಿ ಮೊದಲ ವಾಣಿಜ್ಯ ಗಣಿಗಾರಿಕೆ, ಝರಿಯಾದಲ್ಲಿ ಅತಿ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಕೋಕಿಂಗ್ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು; ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ಜಮ್‌ಶೆಡ್‌ಪುರ, ಬೊಕಾರೊ, ದುರ್ಗಾಪುರ ಉಕ್ಕು ಕಾರ್ಖಾನೆಗಳು ಹತ್ತಿರದಲ್ಲೇ, ಹೊಲದ ಪಕ್ಕದಲ್ಲೇ ಕಣ ಮಾಡುವಂತೆ. ಇತರ ಕ್ಷೇತ್ರಗಳು: ಸಿಂಗ್ರೌಲಿ (ಸೋನ್), ತಾಲ್ಚೇರ್, ಇಬ್, ಕೋರ್ಬಾ (ಮಹಾನದಿ), ಸಿಂಗರೇಣಿ (ಗೋದಾವರಿ), ಚಂದ್ರಪುರ (ವಾರ್ಧಾ). ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಸಂಪನ್ಮೂಲ ಜಾರ್ಖಂಡ್, ಒಡಿಶಾ, ಛತ್ತೀಸ್‌ಗಢದಲ್ಲಿ. (→ English: Gondwana coal; Damodar valley; Jharia; Raniganj · हिन्दी: गोंडवाना कोयला; दामोदर घाटी; झरिया; रानीगंज)

In exam EnglishNearly all of India's coal is Gondwana coal, formed mostly more than 250 million years ago and preserved in sunken troughs along the rivers of the Peninsula. The Damodar valley of Jharkhand and West Bengal is the historic heart of the industry. Commercial coal mining in India began at Raniganj in 1774, and Jharia holds the country's largest store of coking coal, which is why the steel plants of Jamshedpur, Bokaro, Durgapur and Burnpur grew up nearby; Bokaro, Giridih and Karanpura are other fields in the valley. Further west, the Son valley holds the Singrauli field on the Madhya Pradesh–Uttar Pradesh border, ringed by large power stations. The Mahanadi basin has Talcher and the Ib valley in Odisha and Korba in Chhattisgarh; the Godavari valley has the Singareni fields of Telangana; and the Wardha valley has the Chandrapur area of Maharashtra. According to the Geological Survey of India's coal inventory, Jharkhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh together hold most of the country's coal resources.

ಸ್ವಲ್ಪ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು ಬಹಳ ಹೊಸದು: ತೃತೀಯ (ಟರ್ಷಿಯರಿ) ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು, ಈಶಾನ್ಯದಲ್ಲಿ (ಅಸ್ಸಾಂನ ಮಕುಂ, ಮೇಘಾಲಯದ ಬೆಟ್ಟಗಳು, ಅರುಣಾಚಲ, ನಾಗಾಲ್ಯಾಂಡ್). ಇಂಗಾಲ ಕಡಿಮೆ, ಗಂಧಕ ಹೆಚ್ಚು, ಸುಟ್ಟರೆ ಮಾಲಿನ್ಯ. ಮೇಘಾಲಯದ ಕಿರಿದಾದ 'ಇಲಿ ಬಿಲ' ಗಣಿಗಳನ್ನು ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಹಸಿರು ನ್ಯಾಯಮಂಡಳಿ 2014ರಲ್ಲಿ ನಿಷೇಧಿಸಿತು. ಲಿಗ್ನೈಟ್ ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ತಮಿಳುನಾಡಿನಲ್ಲಿ; ನೇವೇಲಿ ಗಣಿಗಳು ಅಲ್ಲೇ ಇರುವ ವಿದ್ಯುತ್ ಸ್ಥಾವರಗಳಿಗೆ; ಗುಜರಾತ್, ರಾಜಸ್ಥಾನದಲ್ಲೂ ಸ್ವಲ್ಪ. ಒದ್ದೆ ಹುಲ್ಲನ್ನು ದೂರ ಹೊರುವುದಕ್ಕಿಂತ ಅಲ್ಲೇ ಬಳಸುವಂತೆ, ಲಿಗ್ನೈಟ್ ಅನ್ನು ಗಣಿಯ ಪಕ್ಕದಲ್ಲೇ ಸುಡುತ್ತಾರೆ. (→ English: Tertiary coal; lignite; Neyveli · हिन्दी: तृतीयक कोयला; लिग्नाइट; नेवेली)

In exam EnglishA small share of India's coal is far younger. Tertiary coal, formed in the Tertiary period, is found in the north-east: the Makum field near Margherita and Ledo in Assam, the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills of Meghalaya, and parts of Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. It has less carbon than Gondwana coal and is high in sulphur, which makes it polluting and corrosive to burn. In Meghalaya, unscientific 'rat-hole' mining through narrow tunnels led the National Green Tribunal to ban that method in 2014. lignite, also mostly of Tertiary age, is the other low-grade coal. Tamil Nadu holds most of India's lignite, and the open-cast mines at Neyveli in Cuddalore district, run by NLC India, feed power stations on the spot. Gujarat (Kutch and Bharuch), Rajasthan (Barmer and the Palana area of Bikaner) and Jammu and Kashmir have smaller deposits. Because lignite is bulky and wet, it is usually burnt in power stations right beside the mine rather than transported far.
India's three kinds of coal compared
TypeAgeQualityMain areas
Gondwana coalGondwana era, mostly over 250 million yearsMostly bituminous; high ash, low sulphur; includes coking coalDamodar, Son, Mahanadi, Godavari and Wardha valleys
Tertiary coalTertiary period, far youngerLower carbon, high sulphurAssam (Makum), Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland
LigniteMostly TertiaryBrown coal: low carbon, high moistureTamil Nadu (Neyveli), Gujarat, Rajasthan

ನಮ್ಮ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು ಹೇರಳ, ಆದರೆ ಗುಣಮಟ್ಟ ಕಡಿಮೆ. ಅದರಲ್ಲಿ ಬೂದಿ (ಉರಿಯದ ಭಾಗ) ಹೆಚ್ಚು; ಒಲೆಗೆ ಹಸಿ ಸೌದೆ ಹಾಕಿದರೆ ಬಿಸಿ ಕಡಿಮೆ, ಬೂದಿ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಬರುವಂತೆ. ಗಂಧಕ ಮಾತ್ರ ಕಡಿಮೆ. ನಮ್ಮ ಕೋಕಿಂಗ್ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು ಕಡಿಮೆ, ಬೂದಿ ಹೆಚ್ಚು, ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ಉಕ್ಕು ಕಾರ್ಖಾನೆಗಳು ಅದನ್ನು ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ಆಮದು ಮಾಡುತ್ತವೆ. ತೆರೆದ ಗಣಿಗಳು ಕಾಡು, ಹೊಲಗಳನ್ನು ನುಂಗುತ್ತವೆ; ಝರಿಯಾದಲ್ಲಿ ನೆಲದಡಿ ಬೆಂಕಿ ನೂರು ವರ್ಷಕ್ಕೂ ಹೆಚ್ಚು; ಧೂಳು, ನೀರಿನ ಮಾಲಿನ್ಯ. (→ English: coking coal; ash content; fly ash · हिन्दी: कोकिंग कोयला; राख की मात्रा; फ्लाई ऐश)

In exam EnglishIndian coal is plentiful but not of high quality. Most Gondwana coal carries a large share of ash, the unburnable mineral matter left behind, which lowers its heat value, wears out boilers and leaves huge heaps of fly ash at power stations; on the other hand it is generally low in sulphur. The ash problem is most serious for steel. Domestic coking coal is limited and ash-rich even after washing, so India's steel plants import a large part of the coking coal they need, while thermal coal is also imported for some coastal power stations. Washeries, which remove some of the ash before the coal is dispatched, help but add cost. Coal also brings local costs: open-cast mines strip forests and farmland, mine fires have burnt underground at Jharia for over a century, and mining towns suffer dust and water pollution. These problems explain why coal is at once India's most important energy mineral and its most contested one.

ಸ್ವಾತಂತ್ರ್ಯದ ನಂತರ ಗಣಿಗಳು ಖಾಸಗಿಯವು, ಹಲವೆಡೆ ವ್ಯರ್ಥ ಮತ್ತು ಅಪಾಯಕಾರಿ ಗಣಿಗಾರಿಕೆ. ಹಾಗಾಗಿ 1972ರಲ್ಲಿ ಕೋಕಿಂಗ್ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು ಗಣಿಗಳು, 1973ರಲ್ಲಿ ಉಳಿದ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು ಗಣಿಗಳು ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಕರಣ. 1975ರಲ್ಲಿ ಕೋಲ್ ಇಂಡಿಯಾ ಸ್ಥಾಪನೆ; ತೆಲಂಗಾಣದ ಸಿಂಗರೇಣಿ ಕೂಡ ದೊಡ್ಡ ಸಾರ್ವಜನಿಕ ಸಂಸ್ಥೆ. ನಂತರ ಸ್ವಂತ ಬಳಕೆಗೆ ಬ್ಲಾಕ್ ಹಂಚಿಕೆ; 2014ರಲ್ಲಿ ಸರ್ವೋಚ್ಚ ನ್ಯಾಯಾಲಯ 1993-2010ರ ಹಂಚಿಕೆಗಳು ಮನಬಂದಂತೆ ಎಂದು ಬಹುತೇಕ ಎಲ್ಲವನ್ನೂ ರದ್ದುಮಾಡಿತು. 2015ರ ಕಾಯ್ದೆಯಿಂದ ಹರಾಜು; 2020ರಿಂದ ಖಾಸಗಿ ಕಂಪನಿಗಳು ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು ತೆಗೆದು ಮಾರಬಹುದು, ಒಂದೇ ಅಂಗಡಿಯಿದ್ದ ಊರಲ್ಲಿ ಹೊಸ ಅಂಗಡಿಗಳು ತೆರೆದಂತೆ. (→ English: nationalisation; Coal India; commercial coal mining · हिन्दी: राष्ट्रीयकरण; कोल इंडिया; व्यावसायिक कोयला खनन)

In exam EnglishCoal has also had a distinct policy history. After independence most mines were private, and many were worked wastefully and unsafely. The government first nationalised the coking-coal mines, under the Coking Coal Mines (Nationalisation) Act of 1972, and then the remaining coal mines under the Coal Mines (Nationalisation) Act of 1973. Coal India Limited was set up in 1975 to run them, and it remains the largest producer; Singareni Collieries in Telangana is the other major public-sector miner. Later, coal blocks were allotted to private and public companies for their own use, such as steel or power plants. In 2014, in Manohar Lal Sharma v. Principal Secretary, the Supreme Court held that the allotments made between 1993 and 2010 were arbitrary and cancelled almost all of them. The Coal Mines (Special Provisions) Act, 2015 then provided for re-allocating blocks by auction, and from 2020 private companies were allowed to mine coal for sale on the open market, ending the public sector's monopoly over commercial coal mining.

ಈ ಭಾಗದ ಖನಿಜಗಳೂ ಅದೇ ಭೂವೈಜ್ಞಾನಿಕ ತರ್ಕವನ್ನು ಅನುಸರಿಸುತ್ತವೆ: ಅಭ್ರಕ, ಸುಣ್ಣದಕಲ್ಲು ಹಳೆಯ ಪರ್ಯಾಯದ್ವೀಪ ಶಿಲೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿ, ಜಿಪ್ಸಂ ಒಣ ವಾಯವ್ಯದಲ್ಲಿ, ಥೋರಿಯಂ ಕಡಲತೀರದ ಮರಳಿನಲ್ಲಿ. ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ದಾಮೋದರ್, ಸೋನ್, ಮಹಾನದಿ, ಗೋದಾವರಿ, ವಾರ್ಧಾ ಕಣಿವೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿ; ಹೊಸ, ಕಡಿಮೆ ದರ್ಜೆಯ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು ಮತ್ತು ಲಿಗ್ನೈಟ್ ಈಶಾನ್ಯ, ತಮಿಳುನಾಡು, ಗುಜರಾತ್, ರಾಜಸ್ಥಾನದಲ್ಲಿ. ಕೋಕಿಂಗ್ ಕಲ್ಲಿದ್ದಲು, ಗೊಬ್ಬರ ಖನಿಜಗಳಿಗೆ ಆಮದು ಅವಲಂಬನೆ; ಥೋರಿಯಂ ಕೊನೆಯ ಹಂತಕ್ಕೆ ಕಾಯುತ್ತಿದೆ. ಕಾನೂನುಗಳೂ ಗಣಿ ನಕ್ಷೆಯನ್ನು ಬದಲಿಸಿದವು: ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಕರಣದಿಂದ ಹರಾಜಿನವರೆಗೆ. (→ English: Gondwana coal; import dependence · हिन्दी: गोंडवाना कोयला; आयात निर्भरता)

In exam EnglishThe minerals of this part follow the same geological logic as the metals of Part 1. Mica, limestone and dolomite come from the old rocks of the Peninsula, gypsum from the dry north-west, and thorium from the beach sands of the southern and eastern coasts. Coal lies mostly in the Gondwana troughs of the Damodar, Son, Mahanadi, Godavari and Wardha valleys, with younger, poorer coal and lignite in the north-east, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Rajasthan. Two dependencies stand out: India imports much of its coking coal and most of its fertiliser minerals, while its plentiful thorium waits on the last stage of the nuclear programme. Coal's story also shows how law shapes geography, from nationalisation in the 1970s to auctions and commercial mining after the 2014 judgment. Part 3 completes the picture with petroleum, natural gas and the generation of electricity.

Exam traps

Recap

Practice questions

Q1. The Jharia coalfield is especially important because it holds India's largest reserves of which of the following?

  1. Lignite
  2. Coking coal
  3. Anthracite
  4. Tertiary coal
Show answer

Answer: B. Coking coal

Jharia, in the Damodar valley, is India's main store of coking coal, which is why steel plants grew up nearby. Lignite is mined mainly at Neyveli in Tamil Nadu, anthracite is rare and found mainly in Jammu and Kashmir, and Tertiary coal lies in the north-east, not in the Gondwana field of Jharia.

Q2. Consider the following statements:
1. Gondwana coal accounts for nearly all of India's coal resources.
2. The Tertiary coal of north-eastern India is low in sulphur.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is wrong: Tertiary coal is high in sulphur; it is Gondwana coal that is generally low in sulphur but high in ash. So '2 only' and 'both' accept a wrong statement, and 'neither' rejects a correct one.

Q3. Match List I (place) with List II (mineral):
List I
A. Jaduguda
B. Chavara
C. Koderma
D. Neyveli
List II
1. Lignite
2. Mica
3. Uranium
4. Monazite
Select the correct answer using the code given below.

  1. A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1
  2. A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1
  3. A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1
  4. A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
Show answer

Answer: C. A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1

Jaduguda (Jharkhand) is a uranium mine, Chavara (Kerala) is known for monazite beach sands, Koderma (Jharkhand) for mica and Neyveli (Tamil Nadu) for lignite. The first code swaps uranium and monazite, the second swaps mica and monazite, and the fourth swaps mica and lignite.

Q4. Which one of the following arranges the types of coal in increasing order of carbon content?

  1. Lignite, peat, bituminous, anthracite
  2. Peat, bituminous, lignite, anthracite
  3. Anthracite, bituminous, lignite, peat
  4. Peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite
Show answer

Answer: D. Peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite

Carbon rises as coal is buried longer and deeper: peat, then lignite, then bituminous coal, then anthracite. The first option puts lignite below peat, the second puts bituminous below lignite, and the third gives the decreasing order.

Q5. Consider the following statements about gypsum:
1. Rajasthan produces most of India's gypsum.
2. It is added to cement to slow its setting and is used to reclaim alkaline soils.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: C. Both 1 and 2

Both statements are correct: gypsum forms where salty water evaporates, so the dry north-west, above all Rajasthan, supplies most of it, and it is used in cement and to reclaim alkaline soils. '1 only' and '2 only' each reject a correct statement, and 'neither' rejects both.

Q6. Consider the following statements:
1. Commercial coal mining in India began at Raniganj in 1774.
2. Coal India Limited was set up before the coal mines were nationalised.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is wrong: the mines were nationalised under Acts of 1972 and 1973, and Coal India was formed afterwards, in 1975, to run them. So '2 only' and 'both' accept the wrong statement, and 'neither' rejects the correct one.

Q7. Which mineral, which splits into thin sheets and is a poor conductor of electricity able to withstand heat, has long been used as an insulator in electrical equipment?

  1. Gypsum
  2. Dolomite
  3. Mica
  4. Monazite
Show answer

Answer: C. Mica

Mica splits into thin, flexible sheets and insulates well even at high temperatures. Gypsum is used in cement and plaster, dolomite as a flux in steel-making, and monazite as a source of thorium and rare earths; none is valued as a sheet insulator.

Q8. Consider the following statements:
1. In 2014 the Supreme Court cancelled almost all the coal blocks allotted between 1993 and 2010.
2. Since 2020 private companies have been allowed to mine coal for sale in the open market.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: C. Both 1 and 2

Both are correct: the Supreme Court's 2014 judgment in Manohar Lal Sharma v. Principal Secretary cancelled almost all the 1993–2010 allotments, and commercial coal mining was opened to private companies in 2020. '1 only' and '2 only' each reject a correct statement, and 'neither' rejects both.

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