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Food crops: rice, wheat, millets, pulses and oilseeds

ಕನ್ನಡದಲ್ಲಿ ವಿವರಣೆ

Agriculture of India · Part 2 / 4 · Fact-checked on 8 November 2026 · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

The growing conditions, seasons and main states of rice, wheat, maize, the millets, pulses and oilseeds; rice in the north-west and the groundwater problem; terminal heat in wheat; nutri-cereals and the International Year of Millets 2023; nitrogen fixation by pulses; edible-oil imports and the oilseed missions; and the long-run trend in foodgrain production.

Each idea is explained first in Kannada (ಕನ್ನಡ), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Kannada and revise it in English.

ಮೊದಲ ಭಾಗದಲ್ಲಿ ಭೂ ಬಳಕೆ, ಬೆಳೆ ಕಾಲಗಳನ್ನು ನೋಡಿದೆವು; ಈಗ ದೇಶಕ್ಕೆ ಅನ್ನ ಕೊಡುವ ಬೆಳೆಗಳು. ಲೆಕ್ಕದಲ್ಲಿ ಆಹಾರಧಾನ್ಯಗಳು ಅಂದರೆ ಧಾನ್ಯಗಳು + ಬೇಳೆಕಾಳು: ಭತ್ತ, ಗೋಧಿ, ಜೋಳ, ಸಜ್ಜೆ, ರಾಗಿ, ಮೆಕ್ಕೆಜೋಳ, ಕಡಲೆ, ತೊಗರಿ. ಎಣ್ಣೆಕಾಳುಗಳು ಬೇರೆ ಲೆಕ್ಕ, ಆದರೆ ಅದೇ ಹೊಲಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಬೆಳೆಯುವುದರಿಂದ ಇಲ್ಲೇ ಓದುತ್ತೇವೆ. ಪ್ರತಿ ಬೆಳೆಗೆ ನಾಲ್ಕು ಪ್ರಶ್ನೆ: ಯಾವ ಕಾಲ, ಯಾವ ಹವೆ-ಮಣ್ಣು, ಯಾವ ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳು, ಯಾವ ನೀತಿ. ಭತ್ತ, ಸಿರಿಧಾನ್ಯಗಳು ಮುಂಗಾರು ಮಳೆಯೊಂದಿಗೆ; ಗೋಧಿ, ಕಡಲೆ, ಸಾಸಿವೆ ಚಳಿಗಾಲದ ಹಿಂಗಾರಿನಲ್ಲಿ. (→ English: foodgrains; kharif; rabi · हिन्दी: खाद्यान्न; खरीफ; रबी)

In exam EnglishPart 1 of this chapter set the stage: how land is used, the three cropping seasons and the ways Indians farm. This part turns to the crops that feed the country. In Indian statistics, foodgrains means cereals plus pulses: rice and wheat, the coarse cereals (jowar, bajra, ragi, maize and the small millets), and pulses such as gram and tur. Oilseeds are counted separately but are covered here too, since they share the same fields and seasons. Rice and most millets are kharif crops sown with the monsoon, while wheat, gram and mustard are rabi crops of the cool, dry winter, so the seasonal calendar from Part 1 is the key to this whole part.

ಭತ್ತಕ್ಕೆ ಬಿಸಿಲು ಮತ್ತು ನೀರು ಎರಡೂ ಬೇಕು: 25°C ಮೇಲೆ ಉಷ್ಣಾಂಶ, ತೇವದ ಗಾಳಿ, 100 ಸೆಂ.ಮೀ.ಗಿಂತ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಮಳೆ; ಮಳೆ ಸಾಲದಿದ್ದರೆ ನೀರಾವರಿ. ಸಸಿಮಡಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಸಸಿ ಬೆಳೆಸಿ, ನೀರು ನಿಂತ ಕೆಸರು ಗದ್ದೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ನಾಟಿ ಮಾಡುತ್ತಾರೆ; ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ನೀರು ಹಿಡಿದಿಡುವ ಜೇಡಿ ಮೆಕ್ಕಲು ಮಣ್ಣು ಸೂಕ್ತ. ಆದ್ದರಿಂದ ಭತ್ತದ ಗದ್ದೆಗಳು ಭಾರೀ ಮಾನ್ಸೂನ್ ಮಳೆ ಇರುವಲ್ಲಿ: ಗಂಗಾ-ಬ್ರಹ್ಮಪುತ್ರ ಬಯಲು, ಕರಾವಳಿ ಬಯಲುಗಳು, ಕಾವೇರಿ ಮುಂತಾದ ಮುಖಜ ಭೂಮಿಗಳು, ಈಶಾನ್ಯದ ಕಣಿವೆಗಳು. ನಮ್ಮ ಕರಾವಳಿಯ ಗದ್ದೆಗಳಂತೆ. ಬೆಚ್ಚಗಿನ ಮುಖಜ ಭೂಮಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ವರ್ಷಕ್ಕೆ ಎರಡು-ಮೂರು ಬೆಳೆ. ಛತ್ತೀಸ್‌ಗಢವನ್ನು ಮಧ್ಯ ಭಾರತದ ಭತ್ತದ ಕಣಜ ಎನ್ನುತ್ತಾರೆ. (→ English: rice; monsoon; alluvial soil · हिन्दी: धान; मानसून; जलोढ़ मृदा)

In exam EnglishRice thrives where it is both warm and wet. A growing season that stays warmer than about 25°C, moist air and more than about 100 cm of rain give the best harvests, and canals or wells fill the gap wherever the rain is not enough. Farmers normally grow the young plants in a nursery bed first and then shift them into flooded, puddled fields, so clayey alluvial soil that keeps water in suits the crop well. The natural rice lands of India therefore follow the heavy monsoon rain: the Ganga–Brahmaputra plains and delta, the eastern and western coastal plains, the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri, and the valleys of the north-east. In warm, wet deltas such as those of West Bengal, coastal Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, farmers can take two or even three rice crops a year, as Part 1's regional rice seasons show. Chhattisgarh, with its large rain-fed paddy area, is often called the rice bowl of central India.

ಹಸಿರು ಕ್ರಾಂತಿಯ ನಂತರ ಭತ್ತ ಪಂಜಾಬ್, ಹರಿಯಾಣಕ್ಕೂ ಹರಡಿತು; ಅಲ್ಲಿ ಅದು ಸಾಂಪ್ರದಾಯಿಕ ಬೆಳೆಯಲ್ಲ. ಕಾಲುವೆ, ಕೊಳವೆಬಾವಿ ನೀರು ಕೊಡುತ್ತವೆ; ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಇಳುವರಿ ಮತ್ತು ಕನಿಷ್ಠ ಬೆಂಬಲ ಬೆಲೆಗೆ ಸರ್ಕಾರ ಖರೀದಿಸುವ ಭರವಸೆ ಲಾಭ ಕೊಡುತ್ತವೆ. ಆದರೆ ಬಿರುಬೇಸಿಗೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ನಾಟಿ ಮಾಡಿದರೆ ಅಂತರ್ಜಲ ಬರಿದು, ಬಾವಿಯ ನೀರು ವರ್ಷವರ್ಷ ಆಳಕ್ಕೆ ಇಳಿದಂತೆ. ಅದಕ್ಕೆ ಪಂಜಾಬ್‌ನ 2009 ಕಾಯ್ದೆ: ಸರ್ಕಾರ ಘೋಷಿಸಿದ ದಿನಾಂಕಕ್ಕೆ ಮೊದಲು ನಾಟಿ ಬೇಡ, ಹೆಚ್ಚು ನೀರು ಬೇಕಾದ ಹಂತ ಮಳೆಗಾಲದಲ್ಲಿ ಬರಲಿ. ಚೀನಾ ಜೊತೆ ಭಾರತ ಅತಿದೊಡ್ಡ ಭತ್ತ ಉತ್ಪಾದಕರಲ್ಲಿ ಒಂದು, ಅಕ್ಕಿ ರಫ್ತಿನಲ್ಲಿ ಮೊದಲು. ಬಾಸ್ಮತಿ ಇಲ್ಲಿನ ಸುವಾಸನೆಯ ಅಕ್ಕಿ. (→ English: minimum support price; Punjab Preservation of Subsoil Water Act, 2009 · हिन्दी: न्यूनतम समर्थन मूल्य; पंजाब उप-मृदा जल संरक्षण अधिनियम, 2009)

In exam EnglishSince the Green Revolution, rice has also spread into Punjab and Haryana, a semi-arid region where it was never a traditional crop. Canals and tube wells supply the water, while high yields and assured purchase at the minimum support price for the central pool make it profitable; the outcome is a paddy–wheat rotation on most irrigated land in the north-west. The price is paid in water, because paddy transplanted in the hottest weeks of early summer pulls heavily on groundwater. The Punjab Preservation of Subsoil Water Act, 2009 tackles this by forbidding paddy transplanting before a date the state notifies, so that the crop's thirstiest stage falls in the monsoon rather than in the dry heat of May. India is one of the world's two largest rice producers, along with China, and has been the largest rice exporter for more than a decade. Basmati, the long-grain aromatic rice of the Indo-Gangetic plain, grown notably in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh, is its best-known export variety.

ಗೋಧಿ ಮುಖ್ಯ ಹಿಂಗಾರು ಧಾನ್ಯ, ಉತ್ತರ ಭಾರತದ ದಿನನಿತ್ಯದ ಚಪಾತಿ ಹಿಟ್ಟು. ಬೆಳೆಯುವಾಗ ತಂಪು, 50-75 ಸೆಂ.ಮೀ. ಮಧ್ಯಮ ಮಳೆ ಅಥವಾ ನೀರಾವರಿ, ಕಾಳು ಹಣ್ಣಾಗುವಾಗ ಬಿಸಿಲು, ಒಣ ಹವೆ ಬೇಕು. ಅಕ್ಟೋಬರ್-ಡಿಸೆಂಬರ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ ಬಿತ್ತನೆ, ಮಾರ್ಚ್-ಮೇನಲ್ಲಿ ಕೊಯ್ಲು; ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಪ್ರಕ್ಷುಬ್ಧತೆ ತರುವ ಚಳಿಗಾಲದ ತುಂತುರು ಸಹಾಯಕ. ಎರಡು ಪಟ್ಟಿಗಳು: ಪಂಜಾಬ್-ಹರಿಯಾಣದ ಗಂಗಾ-ಸಟ್ಲೆಜ್ ಬಯಲು (ಕಾಲುವೆ, ಕೊಳವೆಬಾವಿ), ಮಧ್ಯಪ್ರದೇಶದ ಮಾಲ್ವಾದ ಕಪ್ಪು ಮಣ್ಣು (ಮಣ್ಣಿನಲ್ಲಿ ಹಿಡಿದ ತೇವದಿಂದ). ನಮ್ಮ ಉತ್ತರ ಕರ್ನಾಟಕದ ಎರೆ ಹೊಲದಲ್ಲಿ ಹಿಂಗಾರು ಬೆಳೆ ತೇವದಲ್ಲೇ ಬರುವಂತೆ. ಉತ್ತರ ಪ್ರದೇಶ ಮೊದಲು. (→ English: wheat; western disturbance; black soil (regur) · हिन्दी: गेहूँ; पश्चिमी विक्षोभ; काली मृदा (रेगुर))

In exam EnglishAmong the winter-season grains wheat leads, and it is the everyday food grain across the north and north-west. It needs a cool growing season, moderate rain of roughly 50–75 cm or irrigation in its place, and bright, warm, dry weather while the grain ripens. Sown between October and December and harvested between March and May, it gains from the light winter showers that a western disturbance brings to the north. Two belts grow most of the crop. One is the north-western plain drained by the Satluj and the upper Ganga, spread over Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and the north of Rajasthan, with canals and tube wells supplying the water. The second is the black soil (regur) country of the Malwa plateau and the Deccan, chiefly in Madhya Pradesh, where moisture held in the clayey soil carries the crop through the dry winter. In the Ministry's estimates Uttar Pradesh has long been the largest wheat producer, with Madhya Pradesh and Punjab next.

ಗೋಧಿಯ ದೌರ್ಬಲ್ಯ ಬೆಳೆಯ ಕೊನೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಬರುವ ಬಿಸಿ. ಹೂ ಬಿಟ್ಟ ನಂತರ ಫೆಬ್ರುವರಿ-ಮಾರ್ಚ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ ಕಾಳು ತುಂಬುತ್ತದೆ; ಆಗ ಒಮ್ಮೆಲೇ ಬಿಸಿಲು ಏರಿದರೆ ಕಾಳು ಸಣ್ಣದಾಗಿ ಸುಕ್ಕುಗಟ್ಟುತ್ತದೆ, ತಿಂಗಳ ಹಿಂದೆ ಹಸಿರಾಗಿದ್ದ ಬೆಳೆಯ ಇಳುವರಿಯೂ ಕುಸಿಯುತ್ತದೆ. ಹೆಂಚಿನ ಮೇಲೆ ಉರಿ ಹೆಚ್ಚಾದರೆ ರೊಟ್ಟಿ ಸೀದುಹೋಗುವಂತೆ. 2022ರ ಮಾರ್ಚ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ ಮುಂಚೆಯೇ ಬಿಸಿಗಾಳಿ ಬಂದು ಇಳುವರಿ ಕುಸಿಯಿತು, ಮೇ 2022ರಲ್ಲಿ ಸರ್ಕಾರ ರಫ್ತು ತಡೆಯಿತು. ಪರಿಹಾರ: ಸಮಯಕ್ಕೆ ಅಥವಾ ಮುಂಚೆ ಬಿತ್ತನೆ, ಬಿಸಿ ತಾಳುವ ತಳಿಗಳು, ಕಾಳು ತುಂಬುವಾಗ ಹಗುರ ನೀರು. ಭತ್ತಕ್ಕೆ ನೀರಿನ ಕೊರತೆಯ ಭಯ, ಗೋಧಿಗೆ ತಪ್ಪು ಸಮಯದ ಬಿಸಿಯ ಭಯ. (→ English: terminal heat; grain filling · हिन्दी: दाना भरने के समय की गर्मी (टर्मिनल हीट); दाना भरना)

In exam EnglishWheat's weak point is heat at the end of the season. The grain fills in the weeks after flowering, roughly February and March in the north; if temperatures climb sharply at that stage, a stress agronomists call terminal heat, the grains stay small and shrivelled and yields drop even though the crop looked healthy a month earlier. This happened in 2022, when an unusually early heatwave in March cut the harvest, and the government restricted wheat exports in May 2022 to protect supplies at home. Farmers and scientists respond in three main ways: sowing on time or earlier so that grain-filling ends before the heat arrives, switching to heat-tolerant varieties bred by ICAR's institutes, and giving a light irrigation during grain-filling to cool the crop. The contrast with rice is useful: rice fears too little water, while wheat fears too much warmth at the wrong moment.

ಮೆಕ್ಕೆಜೋಳ ಆಹಾರ, ಮೇವು, ಉದ್ಯಮ ಮೂರಕ್ಕೂ ಉಪಯೋಗ. ಮಧ್ಯಮ ಮಳೆ (50-100 ಸೆಂ.ಮೀ.), ಬೆಚ್ಚನೆ ಹವೆ, ನೀರು ನಿಲ್ಲದ ಮಣ್ಣು ಬೇಕು; ನೀರು ನಿಂತರೆ ಹಾಳು. ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ಮುಂಗಾರು ಬೆಳೆ, ಆದರೆ ಬಿಹಾರದಲ್ಲಿ ಹಿಂಗಾರು ಮೆಕ್ಕೆಜೋಳ ಒಳ್ಳೆಯ ಇಳುವರಿ. ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ, ಮಧ್ಯಪ್ರದೇಶ, ಮಹಾರಾಷ್ಟ್ರ, ತೆಲಂಗಾಣ, ಬಿಹಾರ, ರಾಜಸ್ಥಾನ. ಈಗ ಹೆಚ್ಚಿನ ಭಾಗ ಕೋಳಿ ಆಹಾರ, ಪಿಷ್ಟ, ಪೆಟ್ರೋಲ್‌ಗೆ ಬೆರೆಸುವ ಎಥೆನಾಲ್‌ಗೆ. ರಸ್ತೆಬದಿಯ ಸುಟ್ಟ ತೆನೆ ತಿನ್ನುತ್ತೇವೆ, ಆದರೆ ನಿಜವಾದ ಬೇಡಿಕೆ ಕೋಳಿ ಫಾರ್ಮ್‌ಗಳಿಂದ. ಲೆಕ್ಕದಲ್ಲಿ ಒರಟು ಧಾನ್ಯ, ಆದರೆ ಸಿರಿಧಾನ್ಯವಲ್ಲ. (→ English: maize; coarse cereal · हिन्दी: मक्का; मोटा अनाज)

In exam EnglishMaize serves many uses at once: people eat it, cattle are fed on it and factories process it. It needs moderate rainfall, roughly 50–100 cm, warm temperatures and well-drained soils such as old alluvium, and it cannot stand waterlogging. Most maize is grown as a kharif crop; Bihar is the notable exception, where irrigated fields produce a heavy-yielding rabi crop through the cool months. Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Telangana, Bihar and Rajasthan are among the main growers. Much of India's maize now goes to industry: it feeds the poultry and livestock industry, is processed into starch, and is now also distilled into ethanol for blending with petrol. In official statistics maize is grouped with jowar, bajra and ragi as a coarse cereal, but it is not a millet.

ಜೋಳ, ಸಜ್ಜೆ, ರಾಗಿ ಮುಖ್ಯ ಸಿರಿಧಾನ್ಯಗಳು. ಕಡಿಮೆ ಮಳೆ, ದುರ್ಬಲ ಹಗುರ ಮಣ್ಣಿನಲ್ಲೂ ಬೇಗ ಬೆಳೆ ಕೊಡುವ ಗಟ್ಟಿ ಸಸ್ಯಗಳು; ಭತ್ತ, ಗೋಧಿ ಸೋಲುವಲ್ಲೂ ನಿಲ್ಲುತ್ತವೆ. ಜೋಳ ಎರಡೂ ಕಾಲದಲ್ಲಿ; ದಖ್ಖನ್ ಕಪ್ಪು ಮಣ್ಣಿನ ತೇವದಲ್ಲಿ ಹಿಂಗಾರು ಜೋಳ, ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ಮಹಾರಾಷ್ಟ್ರ ಮುಂದೆ, ನಂತರ ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ. ಸಜ್ಜೆ ಅತಿ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಬಿಸಿ, ಬರ ತಾಳುತ್ತದೆ: ಮರಳಿನ ರಾಜಸ್ಥಾನ ಮೊದಲು. ರಾಗಿ ದಕ್ಷಿಣದ ಕೆಂಪು ಮಣ್ಣು, ಬೆಟ್ಟಗಳಲ್ಲಿ; ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ ಬಹಳ ಮುಂದೆ. ನಮ್ಮ ರಾಗಿ ಮುದ್ದೆ, ಜೋಳದ ರೊಟ್ಟಿ ಇದೇ ಬೆಳೆಗಳಿಂದ. ರಾಗಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಕ್ಯಾಲ್ಸಿಯಂ, ಸಜ್ಜೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಕಬ್ಬಿಣ. (→ English: jowar; bajra; ragi · हिन्दी: ज्वार; बाजरा; रागी)

In exam EnglishThree millets matter most: jowar (sorghum), bajra (pearl millet) and ragi (finger millet). They are hardy, quick-maturing grasses that yield a crop on poor, light soils with little rain, where rice or wheat would fail, and most are rain-fed kharif crops. Jowar is grown in both seasons; the rabi crop, raised on moisture stored in the black soils of the Deccan, helps make Maharashtra the leading jowar state, with Karnataka next. Bajra tolerates the most heat and drought and is the millet of the sandy north-west: Rajasthan grows far more of it than any other state, followed by Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Gujarat. Ragi belongs to the dry uplands and red soils of the south and to the hills, and Karnataka is by far its largest producer. All three carry plenty of fibre and minerals, with ragi standing out for its calcium and bajra for its iron.

ಬಹಳ ವರ್ಷ ನೀರಾವರಿ, ಸರ್ಕಾರಿ ಖರೀದಿ, ಅಗ್ಗದ ಅಕ್ಕಿ ಎಲ್ಲವೂ ಭತ್ತ, ಗೋಧಿಯ ಪರವಾಗಿದ್ದರಿಂದ ಸಿರಿಧಾನ್ಯ ಬೆಳೆ ಕುಸಿಯಿತು. ಈಗ ದಿಕ್ಕು ಬದಲಾಗಿದೆ: ಏಪ್ರಿಲ್ 2018ರಲ್ಲಿ ಇವನ್ನು ಪೌಷ್ಟಿಕ ಧಾನ್ಯಗಳು ಎಂದು ಘೋಷಿಸಲಾಯಿತು, 2018 ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಸಿರಿಧಾನ್ಯ ವರ್ಷ. ಭಾರತದ ಪ್ರಸ್ತಾವದಂತೆ ವಿಶ್ವಸಂಸ್ಥೆ 2023ನ್ನು ಅಂತರರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಸಿರಿಧಾನ್ಯ ವರ್ಷ ಎಂದು ಘೋಷಿಸಿತು (ನಿರ್ಣಯ ಮಾರ್ಚ್ 2021). 2023-24 ಬಜೆಟ್ 'ಶ್ರೀ ಅನ್ನ' ಎಂದು ಹೆಸರಿಟ್ಟಿತು, ಹೈದರಾಬಾದ್ ಸಂಸ್ಥೆಗೆ ಬೆಂಬಲ. ಅಜ್ಜಿಯ ಕಾಲದ ರಾಗಿ ಮುದ್ದೆ ಮತ್ತೆ ತಟ್ಟೆಗೆ ಬಂದಂತೆ. ನೀರು ಕಡಿಮೆ, ಬರ ತಾಳುತ್ತವೆ, ಪೋಷಕಾಂಶ ಹೆಚ್ಚು. (→ English: nutri-cereals; International Year of Millets; Shree Anna · हिन्दी: पोषक अनाज; अंतरराष्ट्रीय मिलेट वर्ष; श्री अन्न)

In exam EnglishFor decades the area under millets shrank, as irrigation, procurement and subsidised grain all favoured rice and wheat. Policy has since changed direction. In April 2018 the Ministry of Agriculture notified millets as nutri-cereals, and 2018 was observed as the National Year of Millets. India proposed it, and in March 2021 the UN General Assembly passed a resolution naming 2023 the International Year of Millets. Millets were branded Shree Anna in the Union Budget for 2023–24, which also announced that the Indian Institute of Millets Research in Hyderabad would be supported as a centre of excellence. The case for millets rests on three features: they use little water, they withstand heat and drought better than other cereals, and they are nutritious, so they serve climate adaptation and nutrition goals at the same time.

Main food crops and oilseeds at a glance
Crop	Season	Needs	Main states
Rice	Kharif; two or three crops in irrigated deltas	Above about 25°C, over about 100 cm rain or irrigation, water-holding clayey soil	West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu
Wheat	Rabi	Cool growing season, 50–75 cm rain or irrigation, sunny ripening	Uttar Pradesh (largest), Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan
Jowar	Kharif and rabi	Dry areas; rabi crop on stored moisture in black soil	Maharashtra (largest), Karnataka
Bajra	Kharif	Hot, dry; sandy, light soils	Rajasthan (largest), Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Gujarat
Ragi	Kharif	Dry uplands, red soils, hills	Karnataka (largest), Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand
Maize	Mainly kharif; rabi in Bihar	Moderate rain, well-drained soil, no waterlogging	Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Telangana, Bihar
Gram	Rabi	Cool, dry; little rain	Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan
Groundnut	Mainly kharif	Light sandy soil	Gujarat (largest), Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh
Rapeseed and mustard	Rabi	Cool, dry north-west	Rajasthan (largest), Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh
Soybean	Kharif	Black soil, moderate rain	Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan

ದ್ವಿದಳ ಧಾನ್ಯಗಳು ಹೆಚ್ಚಿನವರಿಗೆ ಪ್ರೋಟೀನ್ ಕೊಡುತ್ತವೆ. ಮುಂಗಾರಿನಲ್ಲಿ ತೊಗರಿ, ಹೆಸರು, ಉದ್ದು; ಹಿಂಗಾರಿನಲ್ಲಿ ಕಡಲೆ (ಅತಿ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಉತ್ಪಾದನೆ), ಮಸೂರ್, ಬಟಾಣಿ. ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ಮಳೆಯಾಶ್ರಿತ ದುರ್ಬಲ ಭೂಮಿಯಲ್ಲಿ, ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ಇಳುವರಿ ಕಡಿಮೆ, ವರ್ಷವರ್ಷ ಬದಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ; ಮಧ್ಯಪ್ರದೇಶ, ಮಹಾರಾಷ್ಟ್ರ, ರಾಜಸ್ಥಾನ ಮುಂದೆ. ಇವುಗಳ ಬೇರುಗಂಟುಗಳಲ್ಲಿನ ರೈಜೋಬಿಯಂ ಬ್ಯಾಕ್ಟೀರಿಯಾ ಗಾಳಿಯ ಸಾರಜನಕವನ್ನು ಮಣ್ಣಿಗೆ ಸೇರಿಸುತ್ತದೆ; ಈ ಸಾರಜನಕ ಸ್ಥಿರೀಕರಣ ಮುಂದಿನ ಬೆಳೆಗೆ ಗೊಬ್ಬರ ಕಡಿಮೆ ಮಾಡುತ್ತದೆ. ಕಲಬುರಗಿಯ ತೊಗರಿ ಹೊಲದ ನಂತರ ಮಣ್ಣು ಫಲವತ್ತಾಗುವುದು ಇದರಿಂದ. ನಾವು ಅತಿದೊಡ್ಡ ಉತ್ಪಾದಕರಾದರೂ ತೊಗರಿ, ಉದ್ದು, ಮಸೂರ್ ಆಮದು; 2025-26 ಬಜೆಟ್ ಆರು ವರ್ಷದ ಮಿಷನ್ ಘೋಷಿಸಿತು. (→ English: pulses; nitrogen fixation · हिन्दी: दलहन; नाइट्रोजन स्थिरीकरण)

In exam Englishpulses are the main source of protein for most Indians and a key part of crop rotations. Kharif pulses include tur (arhar or pigeon pea), moong and urad; rabi pulses include gram (chana), the largest single pulse by output, lentil (masoor) and peas. Most are grown rain-fed on marginal land, which keeps yields low and output unsteady from year to year; Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan together account for a large share of the country's pulses. As legumes, pulses host Rhizobium bacteria in their root nodules, which take nitrogen from the air and leave it in the soil. This nitrogen fixation lowers the fertiliser needed by the next crop, which is why pulses are rotated with cereals. India is the world's largest producer and consumer of pulses but still imports some, chiefly tur, urad and lentil, to meet demand; the Union Budget 2025–26 announced a six-year mission for self-reliance in pulses with special focus on these three.

ಎಣ್ಣೆಕಾಳುಗಳು ಎರಡೂ ಕಾಲದಲ್ಲಿ. ಶೇಂಗಾ ಮರಳು ಮಣ್ಣಿನ ಮುಂಗಾರು ಬೆಳೆ, ಗುಜರಾತ್ ಮುಂದೆ; ಸೋಯಾಬೀನ್ ಕಪ್ಪು ಮಣ್ಣಿನ ಮುಂಗಾರು ಬೆಳೆ, ಮಧ್ಯಪ್ರದೇಶ-ಮಹಾರಾಷ್ಟ್ರ; ಸಾಸಿವೆ ತಂಪು ಒಣ ವಾಯವ್ಯದ ಹಿಂಗಾರು ಬೆಳೆ, ರಾಜಸ್ಥಾನ ಮೊದಲು. ಸೂರ್ಯಕಾಂತಿ, ಎಳ್ಳು, ಹರಳು ಕೂಡ; ಹರಳಿನಲ್ಲಿ ಭಾರತ ವಿಶ್ವದಲ್ಲಿ ಮೊದಲು, ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ಗುಜರಾತ್‌ನಿಂದ. ಆದರೂ ನಮ್ಮ ಅಡುಗೆ ಎಣ್ಣೆಯ ಅರ್ಧಕ್ಕಿಂತ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಆಮದು: ತಾಳೆ, ಸೋಯಾ, ಸೂರ್ಯಕಾಂತಿ ಎಣ್ಣೆ. ಅಡುಗೆಮನೆಯ ಎಣ್ಣೆ ಡಬ್ಬದ ಅರ್ಧಕ್ಕಿಂತ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ವಿದೇಶದಿಂದ ಎಂದುಕೊಳ್ಳಿ. 1986ರ ಮಿಷನ್ 'ಹಳದಿ ಕ್ರಾಂತಿ' ತಂದಿತು; 2021 ತಾಳೆ ಎಣ್ಣೆ ಮಿಷನ್, 2024 ಎಣ್ಣೆಕಾಳು ಮಿಷನ್. (→ English: oilseeds; edible oil; Yellow Revolution · हिन्दी: तिलहन; खाद्य तेल; पीली क्रांति)

In exam Englishoilseeds are grown in both seasons. Groundnut, mostly a kharif crop of light sandy soils, is led by Gujarat; soybean, a kharif crop of the black soils, is grown mainly in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra; rapeseed and mustard, the chief rabi oilseeds, belong to the cool, dry north-west, with Rajasthan the leading state. Sunflower, sesamum (til) and castor complete the list, and India is the world's largest producer of castor seed, most of it from Gujarat. Even so, home output falls well short of consumption, and India imports more than half of the edible oil it uses, mostly palm, soybean and sunflower oil (PIB release on the National Mission on Edible Oils–Oilseeds, 2024). The Technology Mission on Oilseeds of 1986 brought the 'Yellow Revolution' of the late 1980s. More recently, the National Mission on Edible Oils–Oil Palm (2021), and the oilseeds mission of 2024 seek to raise domestic supply.

ಒಟ್ಟಾರೆ ನೋಡಿದರೆ ನಮ್ಮ ಕೃಷಿ ಎಷ್ಟು ಮುಂದೆ ಬಂದಿದೆ ಎಂದು ತಿಳಿಯುತ್ತದೆ. ಆಹಾರಧಾನ್ಯಗಳು 1950-51ರಲ್ಲಿ ಸುಮಾರು 5.1 ಕೋಟಿ ಟನ್‌ನಿಂದ 2023-24ರಲ್ಲಿ ಸುಮಾರು 33.2 ಕೋಟಿ ಟನ್ ದಾಖಲೆಗೆ: ಅದರಲ್ಲಿ ಅಕ್ಕಿ ಸುಮಾರು 13.8 ಕೋಟಿ, ಗೋಧಿ 11.3 ಕೋಟಿ. ಬೆಳವಣಿಗೆ ಹೊಸ ಭೂಮಿಯಿಂದಲ್ಲ, ನೀರಾವರಿ ಭೂಮಿಯ ಹೆಚ್ಚಿನ ಇಳುವರಿಯಿಂದ; ಆದರೆ ಅಸಮಾನ: ಅಕ್ಕಿ-ಗೋಧಿ ಮುಕ್ಕಾಲು ಪಾಲು, ಬೇಳೆಕಾಳು (ಸುಮಾರು 2.4 ಕೋಟಿ ಟನ್), ಸಿರಿಧಾನ್ಯ ಹಿಂದುಳಿದವು. ತಟ್ಟೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಅನ್ನ ಹೆಚ್ಚಾಗಿ ಸಾರು ಕಡಿಮೆಯಾದಂತೆ. ಭತ್ತ ಮಳೆ-ಕಾಲುವೆ ಹಿಂದೆ, ಗೋಧಿ ಚಳಿ-ಕೊಳವೆಬಾವಿ ಹಿಂದೆ, ಸಿರಿಧಾನ್ಯ-ಬೇಳೆಕಾಳು ಒಣ ನೆಲದಲ್ಲಿ. (→ English: foodgrains; foodgrain production · हिन्दी: खाद्यान्न; खाद्यान्न उत्पादन)

In exam EnglishTaken together, these crops show how far Indian farming has come. Production of foodgrains rose from about 51 million tonnes in 1950–51 to a record of about 332 million tonnes in 2023–24, including roughly 138 million tonnes of rice and 113 million tonnes of wheat (Final Estimates for 2023–24, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare). That growth came mostly from higher yields on irrigated land rather than from new land, and it was uneven: rice and wheat now make up about three-quarters of foodgrain output, while pulses, at about 24 million tonnes in the same year, and millets have lagged behind. The pattern ties the crops back to geography: rice follows rain and canals, wheat follows cool winters and tube wells, millets and pulses hold the dry and rain-fed lands, and oilseeds are spread across both seasons.

Exam traps

In Indian statistics FOODGRAINS = cereals + pulses. Oilseeds are NOT foodgrains, even though they share the same fields and seasons.
Maize is counted as a coarse cereal but is NOT a millet; jowar, bajra and ragi are millets.
Jowar is grown in BOTH kharif and rabi (rabi jowar on stored moisture in Deccan black soils); bajra and ragi are kharif crops.
Do not swap the leaders: bajra and mustard → Rajasthan; ragi → Karnataka; jowar → Maharashtra; groundnut and castor → Gujarat; wheat → Uttar Pradesh.
Paddy is NOT banned under the Punjab Preservation of Subsoil Water Act, 2009; the law merely sets an earliest permitted date for transplanting it, so that the crop's most water-hungry weeks coincide with monsoon rain.
National Year of Millets and the nutri-cereals notification = 2018; International Year of Millets = 2023 (UNGA resolution adopted in March 2021, on India's proposal).
Gram (chana) is a RABI pulse and the largest single pulse; tur, moong and urad are KHARIF pulses.
India is the largest producer of pulses yet still imports them, and it imports more than half of its edible oil despite being the largest castor producer.

Recap

Foodgrains = cereals (rice, wheat, coarse cereals) + pulses; oilseeds are counted separately.
Rice: above about 25°C, over about 100 cm rain or irrigation, clayey alluvium; deltas, coasts, eastern plains, north-east; spread to Punjab–Haryana with canals, tube wells and MSP procurement.
Punjab Preservation of Subsoil Water Act, 2009: no paddy transplanting before a notified date, to save groundwater.
Wheat: rabi; cool growing season, 50–75 cm rain, sunny ripening; Ganga–Satluj plain and Malwa black soils; Uttar Pradesh largest; terminal heat is the key risk (2022 heatwave, export curbs in May 2022).
Maize: food, feed, starch and ethanol; mainly kharif, rabi maize in Bihar; a coarse cereal but not a millet.
Millets: jowar (Maharashtra), bajra (Rajasthan), ragi (Karnataka); hardy, low-water, nutritious; nutri-cereals 2018, International Year of Millets 2023, Shree Anna.
Pulses: tur, moong, urad (kharif); gram, lentil, peas (rabi); nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium; India largest producer yet an importer.
Oilseeds: groundnut (Gujarat), soybean (MP, Maharashtra), mustard (Rajasthan), castor (India world's largest); over half of edible oil imported; oil palm mission 2021, oilseeds mission 2024.
Foodgrains rose from about 51 million tonnes (1950–51) to about 332 million tonnes (2023–24); rice and wheat about three-quarters of the total.

Practice questions

Q1. Which one of the following States is the largest producer of bajra (pearl millet) in India?

Uttar Pradesh
Rajasthan
Gujarat
Maharashtra

Show answer

Answer: B. Rajasthan

Rajasthan grows far more bajra than any other state, because bajra tolerates the heat, drought and sandy soils of the north-west. Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat are important growers but well behind Rajasthan, and Maharashtra leads in jowar, not bajra.

Q2. Consider the following statements about Indian agricultural statistics:
1. Pulses are counted as part of foodgrains.
2. Oilseeds are counted as part of foodgrains.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1 only
2 only
Both 1 and 2
Neither 1 nor 2

Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct: foodgrains are cereals plus pulses. Statement 2 is wrong: oilseeds are reported separately. So '2 only' and 'both' accept a wrong statement, and 'neither' rejects a correct one.

Q3. Consider the following pairs of crop and leading producing State:
1. Ragi : Karnataka
2. Groundnut : Gujarat
3. Rapeseed and mustard : Punjab
How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

Only one
Only two
All three
None

Show answer

Answer: B. Only two

Pairs 1 and 2 are correct: Karnataka leads in ragi and Gujarat in groundnut. Pair 3 is wrong: Rajasthan, not Punjab, is the leading producer of rapeseed and mustard. So 'only one' undercounts, 'all three' accepts the wrong pair, and 'none' rejects two correct pairs.

Q4. With reference to the Punjab Preservation of Subsoil Water Act, 2009, consider the following statements:
1. It bars the transplanting of paddy before a date notified by the State.
2. It bans the cultivation of paddy in districts where groundwater is over-exploited.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1 only
2 only
Both 1 and 2
Neither 1 nor 2

Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct: the Act delays transplanting so that the crop's heaviest water need falls in the monsoon. Statement 2 is wrong: the Act regulates timing and does not ban paddy anywhere. So '2 only' and 'both' accept a wrong statement, and 'neither' rejects the correct one.

Q5. In the context of wheat cultivation in India, the term 'terminal heat' refers to

a sharp rise in temperature during grain-filling at the end of the season
high soil temperature at the time of sowing in October
heat produced inside stored grain in warehouses
a heatwave at the time of kharif sowing in June

Show answer

Answer: A. a sharp rise in temperature during grain-filling at the end of the season

Terminal heat is high temperature at the end of the crop's life, when the grain is filling (roughly February–March in the north); it shrivels the grain and cuts yield. It is not about sowing-time soil temperature, heat in storage, or the kharif season, since wheat is a rabi crop.

Q6. Consider the following statements:
1. Gram is a rabi pulse.
2. Tur (arhar) is a rabi pulse.
3. Pulses enrich the soil with nitrogen through bacteria in their root nodules.
Which of the statements given above are correct?

1 and 2 only
2 and 3 only
1 and 3 only
1, 2 and 3

Show answer

Answer: C. 1 and 3 only

Statements 1 and 3 are correct: gram is sown in the rabi season, and Rhizobium bacteria in pulse root nodules fix atmospheric nitrogen. Statement 2 is wrong because tur is a kharif pulse. Every other option includes statement 2 or leaves out a correct statement.

Q7. Consider the following statements about millets:
1. The UN General Assembly declared 2023 the International Year of Millets on India's proposal.
2. Millets were first notified as 'nutri-cereals' in India in 2023.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1 only
2 only
Both 1 and 2
Neither 1 nor 2

Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct: the UNGA adopted the resolution in March 2021 on India's proposal. Statement 2 is wrong: the nutri-cereals notification came in April 2018, the National Year of Millets. So '2 only' and 'both' accept a wrong date, and 'neither' rejects a correct statement.

Q8. Which of the following conditions favour the cultivation of rice?
1. Warmth of roughly 25°C or more while the crop is growing
2. More than about 100 cm of rain a year, or irrigation to make up a shortfall
3. Light sandy soils that drain water away quickly
Select the correct answer using the code given below.

1 and 2 only
2 and 3 only
1 and 3 only
1, 2 and 3

Show answer

Answer: A. 1 and 2 only

Rice needs heat (1) and plenty of water (2), and it grows in puddled fields with standing water, so it prefers clayey soils that hold water. Light sandy soils that drain fast (3) suit crops like bajra or groundnut instead. Every option containing 3 is therefore wrong.

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Sources

Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare: Final Estimates of Production of Major Crops 2023–24; Agricultural Statistics at a Glance (crop seasons, area and production by state) — https://desagri.gov.in
Indian Council of Agricultural Research and its crop institutes (rice, wheat and barley, maize, millets, pulses, oilseeds): crop production guides — https://icar.org.in
Press Information Bureau releases: millets notified as nutri-cereals (2018); International Year of Millets 2023; wheat export restriction (May 2022); National Mission on Edible Oils–Oil Palm (2021) and –Oilseeds (2024); Union Budget 2023–24 (Shree Anna) and 2025–26 (mission for pulses) — https://pib.gov.in
The Punjab Preservation of Subsoil Water Act, 2009 — https://www.indiacode.nic.in