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English · हिन्दी · తెలుగు · தமிழ் · മലയാളം · मराठी · ಕನ್ನಡ

Quick recap: Prehistory and the Harappan civilisation on one page

తెలుగులో వివరణ

Prehistory and the Harappan civilisation · Quick recap · Fact-checked on · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

All three parts condensed for quick revision: the Stone Age stages and their sites, rock art, the Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures, the Harappan discovery, extent, sites and town planning, and the Harappan economy, beliefs, script and decline, with one table and eight mixed questions.

Each idea is explained first in Telugu (తెలుగు), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Telugu and revise it in English.

చరిత్ర పూర్వ యుగం అంటే రాత లేని కాలం — పనిముట్లు, ఎముకల నుంచే తెలుసుకుంటాం. లోతైన పొర పాతది, పైది కొత్తది — ఇంట్లో అడుగున ఉన్న పాత పుస్తకాల్లా. ప్రాచీన శిలాయుగంలో మూడు దశలు: దిగువ (చేతి గొడ్డళ్ళు; అత్తిరంపాక్కం, 1863లో పల్లవరంలో ఫుట్), మధ్య (పెచ్చుల పనిముట్లు; నెవాసా), ఎగువ (బ్లేడ్లు, ఉష్ట్రపక్షి గుడ్డు పెంకు పూసలు; పట్నే). (→ English: prehistory · Palaeolithic · हिन्दी: प्रागितिहास · पुरापाषाण काल)

In exam EnglishThe chapter begins with prehistory, the long age before writing, known only from tools, bones and other remains. The Harappan age is called protohistory because it had a script that is still unread, and history proper begins with readable records. Remains are dated by stratigraphy, where deeper layers are older, and by radiocarbon dating of once-living material. The Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age has three stages. The Lower stage used heavy core tools such as Acheulian hand axes and cleavers and Soanian choppers, at sites like Attirampakkam, Hunsgi and Bhimbetka; Robert Bruce Foote found the first such tool at Pallavaram in 1863, and the Hathnora skull of 1982 came from the Narmada valley. The Middle stage is marked by flake tools, as at Nevasa, and the Upper by blades, burins and ostrich eggshell beads, as at Patne.

మంచు యుగం తర్వాత వెచ్చదనం పెరిగింది, మధ్య శిలాయుగం మొదలైంది. గుర్తు: సూక్ష్మ శిలా పరికరం — చిన్న రాతి ముక్కలను కర్రలో అమర్చి బాణం, కొడవలి చేశారు, రంపంలో పళ్ళు పెట్టినట్టు. బాగోర్, ఆదంగఢ్‌లో పశుపోషణ మొదలు. భీమ్‌బెట్కా శిలాశ్రయం బొమ్మలు (రాయ్‌సేన్, మధ్యప్రదేశ్) — 1957లో వాకణ్కర్, 2003లో యునెస్కో; చాలా కాలాలవి. (→ English: Mesolithic · microlith · rock shelter · हिन्दी: मध्यपाषाण काल · सूक्ष्म पाषाण उपकरण · शैलाश्रय)

In exam EnglishAfter the last Ice Age the climate grew warmer and the Mesolithic began. Its hallmark is the microlith, a tiny stone blade or point set in wood or bone to make arrows, sickles and other composite tools. People still hunted and gathered, but at Bagor in Rajasthan and Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh they also began to keep animals, and Ganga plain sites such as Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha have burials. The best-known window on these early people is art. The rock shelter paintings of Bhimbetka, in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh, were brought to notice by V. S. Wakankar in 1957 and became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003. They show hunting, dancing and animals, and belong to many periods, not only the Mesolithic.

నవీన శిలాయుగం అంటే నునుపైన రాతి పనిముట్లు, వ్యవసాయం, పశువులు, కుండలు, స్థిర గ్రామాలు. మెహర్‌గఢ్‌లో క్రీ.పూ. 7000 నుంచి గోధుమ, బార్లీ. బుర్జహోమ్‌లో గుంత ఇళ్ళు, యజమానితో కుక్క సమాధి; కోల్డిహ్వాలో వరి; దక్షిణాన పేడ బూడిద దిబ్బలు. తామ్ర శిలాయుగంలో రాయితో పాటు రాగి, రంగుల కుండలు — అహార్, కాయథ, మాల్వా, జోర్వే గ్రామాలు; ఇనాంగావ్‌లో ఇంటి నేల కింద సమాధులు, దైమాబాద్ నిధి. (→ English: Neolithic · Chalcolithic · हिन्दी: नवपाषाण काल · ताम्रपाषाण काल)

In exam EnglishThe Neolithic brought polished stone tools, farming, domestic animals, pottery and settled villages. Mehrgarh in Balochistan shows the earliest farming in the subcontinent, with wheat and barley from about 7000 BCE. Regional cultures followed their own paths: pit dwellings and dogs buried with their owners at Burzahom in Kashmir, bone tools at Chirand in Bihar, early rice at Koldihwa and Mahagara in the Belan valley, and ash mounds of burnt cattle dung in the south at Utnur, Kupgal and Budihal. The Chalcolithic cultures added copper to stone and made painted pottery. The Ahar-Banas, Kayatha, Malwa and Jorwe cultures were farming villages without cities or script; Inamgaon buried its dead under house floors, and Daimabad yielded a hoard of bronze objects. Many of these cultures lay outside the Harappan zone, and many came after it.

హరప్పా నాగరికత ఉపఖండంలో మొదటి నగరాలు. 1921లో సాహ్ని హరప్పా, 1922లో బెనర్జీ మొహెంజొదారో, 1924లో మార్షల్ ప్రకటన. పరిణత దశ క్రీ.పూ. 2600–1900. ఉత్తరాన మాండా, షోర్తుగై నుంచి దక్షిణాన దైమాబాద్ వరకు, పశ్చిమాన సుత్కాగెన్ డోర్ నుంచి తూర్పున ఆలంగీర్‌పూర్ వరకు. పడమర ఎత్తైన కోట భాగం, తూర్పున దిగువ పట్టణం, చదరంగం గళ్ళలా వీధులు, 1:2:4 ఇటుకలు, మూసిన కాలువలు. (→ English: Harappan civilisation · citadel · हिन्दी: हड़प्पा सभ्यता · दुर्ग)

In exam EnglishThe Harappan civilisation produced the subcontinent's first cities. Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa in 1921, R. D. Banerji began at Mohenjo-daro in 1922, and John Marshall announced the discovery in 1924. The Mature phase lasted from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, after Early Harappan beginnings at sites such as Kot Diji, Amri and early Kalibangan. The civilisation reached from Manda and Shortugai in the north to Daimabad in the south, and from Sutkagen Dor in the west to Alamgirpur in the east, with a thick cluster of sites along the Ghaggar-Hakra; more sites are now known in India than in Pakistan. Towns typically had a raised western citadel and an eastern lower town, streets in a grid, burnt bricks in the ratio 1:2:4, covered drains and courtyard houses with wells.

ప్రతి స్థలానికి ఒక గుర్తు — ఊరికో ప్రత్యేక వంటకం ఉన్నట్టు. మొహెంజొదారో: మహా స్నానవాటిక, 'నర్తకి', 1980 యునెస్కో. హరప్పా: ధాన్యాగారాలు, సిమెటరీ హెచ్. లోథల్: నౌకాగారం, పూసల పని. ధోలావీరా: రాతి కట్టడం, మూడు భాగాలు, జలాశయాలు, 2021 యునెస్కో. కాలిబంగన్: దున్నిన పొలం, అగ్ని వేదికలు; బనావలి: నాగలి బొమ్మ; రాఖీగఢీ: పెద్ద స్థలం; రోపడ్: సట్లెజ్; చన్హుదారో: కోట లేదు. (→ English: dockyard · Great Bath · हिन्दी: गोदीवाड़ा · विशाल स्नानागार)

In exam EnglishEach major site has its own mark. Mohenjo-daro in Sindh has the Great Bath on its citadel, a large hall often called the granary, the bronze 'dancing girl' and the stone 'priest-king', and became a World Heritage Site in 1980. Harappa has rows of granaries, working platforms and the later Cemetery H. Lothal in Gujarat had a dockyard and a bead workshop; Dholavira, on Khadir Bet in the Rann of Kutch, was built largely of stone in three parts with great reservoirs and a large signboard, and became a World Heritage Site in 2021. Kalibangan in Rajasthan has a ploughed field and fire altars, Banawali in Haryana a terracotta plough model, Rakhigarhi in Haryana is among the largest sites, Ropar on the Sutlej was the first site dug after Independence, and Chanhudaro had no citadel.

నగరాలు గోధుమ, బార్లీ, పత్తి మీద నిలిచాయి. కంచు పోత, కార్నీలియన్ పూసలు, స్టియటైట్ ముద్రలు (ఎక్కువగా యూనికార్న్), ఒకే తూనికలు. అఫ్గానిస్తాన్, ఒమన్, మెసపొటేమియాతో వ్యాపారం — మెలూహా అంటే హరప్పా ప్రాంతం. రాజభవనం, గుడి దొరకలేదు; 'పశుపతి', 'మాతృదేవత' ఊహలే. సుమారు 400 గుర్తుల లిపి, కుడి నుంచి ఎడమకు, ఇంకా చదవలేదు. క్రీ.పూ. 1900 తర్వాత పట్టణ క్షీణత — పెద్ద ఊరు ఖాళీ అయి పల్లెలుగా చీలినట్టు; దండయాత్ర సిద్ధాంతం తిరస్కరించారు. (→ English: deurbanisation · Meluhha · undeciphered script · हिन्दी: विनगरीकरण · मेलुहा · अपठित लिपि)

In exam EnglishThe cities rested on wheat and barley, pulses, oilseeds and cotton, with rice at a few Gujarat sites. Craftsmen cast bronze by the lost-wax method, drilled long carnelian beads and carved square steatite seals, most often showing the 'unicorn'; standard chert weights doubled up to sixty-four and then rose in tens. Trade brought lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, copper from Khetri and Oman and carnelian from Gujarat, and Mesopotamian records name Meluhha, generally taken to be the Harappan region, along with Dilmun (Bahrain) and Magan (Oman). No palace, temple or royal tomb has been firmly identified, and the 'mother goddess', 'proto-Shiva' seal and 'priest-king' remain interpretations. The script of about four hundred signs, usually written right to left, is undeciphered. After about 1900 BCE the cities declined through deurbanisation into Late Harappan village cultures such as Cemetery H and Jhukar; Wheeler's invasion theory is rejected in favour of several combined causes.
At a glance: stages and the sites to remember
StageHallmarkSites to remember
Lower PalaeolithicHand axes, cleavers, choppersAttirampakkam, Hunsgi, Hathnora, Pallavaram
Middle and Upper PalaeolithicFlakes; then blades and burinsNevasa; Patne, Belan valley
MesolithicMicroliths, early animal keepingBagor, Adamgarh, Sarai Nahar Rai, Bhimbetka
NeolithicPolished tools, farming, villagesMehrgarh, Burzahom, Chirand, Koldihwa, Utnur
ChalcolithicCopper with stone, painted potteryAhar, Kayatha, Navdatoli, Inamgaon, Daimabad
Mature Harappan (c. 2600–1900 BCE)Planned cities, seals, scriptHarappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Dholavira, Kalibangan
Late Harappan (after c. 1900 BCE)Deurbanised village culturesCemetery H, Jhukar, late Rangpur

Exam traps

Recap

Practice questions

Q1. Microliths, tiny stone blades set in handles to make composite tools, are the hallmark of which stage?

  1. Lower Palaeolithic
  2. Mesolithic
  3. Neolithic
  4. Chalcolithic
Show answer

Answer: B. Mesolithic

Microliths mark the Mesolithic. The Lower Palaeolithic (a) used heavy hand axes and choppers; the Neolithic (c) is marked by polished stone tools and farming; the Chalcolithic (d) added copper to stone.

Q2. Consider the following statements about Bhimbetka:
1. It lies in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh.
2. It was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: C. Both 1 and 2

Both statements are correct, so (c) is the answer. Options (a) and (b) each leave out a correct statement, and (d) wrongly rejects both.

Q3. Consider the following pairs:
Site : Known for
1. Burzahom : Pit dwellings
2. Mehrgarh : Early wheat and barley farming
3. Inamgaon : Harappan dockyard
How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

  1. Only one
  2. Only two
  3. All three
  4. None
Show answer

Answer: B. Only two

Pairs 1 and 2 are correct. Inamgaon is a Chalcolithic (Jorwe) village known for burials under house floors; the dockyard is at Lothal, so pair 3 is wrong. That rules out 'all three' (c), 'only one' (a) and 'none' (d).

Q4. Which one of the following Harappan sites is located in Haryana?

  1. Ropar
  2. Kalibangan
  3. Rakhigarhi
  4. Lothal
Show answer

Answer: C. Rakhigarhi

Rakhigarhi is in Hisar district, Haryana. Ropar (a) is on the Sutlej in Punjab, Kalibangan (b) is in Rajasthan and Lothal (d) is in Gujarat.

Q5. Consider the following statements about Dholavira:
1. It lies on Khadir Bet in the Rann of Kutch.
2. The Great Bath of the Harappan civilisation was found there.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is wrong: the Great Bath is on the citadel of Mohenjo-daro; Dholavira is known for its three-part stone plan, reservoirs and signboard. So (b), (c) and (d) are wrong.

Q6. In Mesopotamian records, 'Dilmun' is generally identified with

  1. Bahrain
  2. The Oman coast
  3. The Harappan region
  4. Badakhshan
Show answer

Answer: A. Bahrain

Dilmun is usually identified with Bahrain. The Oman coast (b) is Magan and the Harappan region (c) is Meluhha; Badakhshan (d) in Afghanistan was the source of lapis lazuli, not one of the three named trading lands.

Q7. Which animal appears most often on Harappan seals?

  1. Horse
  2. The one-horned 'unicorn'
  3. Camel
  4. Lion
Show answer

Answer: B. The one-horned 'unicorn'

The one-horned beast called the unicorn is the most common seal motif. The horse (a) does not appear on the seals; the camel (c) and lion (d) are not among the usual seal animals, which include the humped bull, elephant, rhinoceros and tiger.

Q8. Consider the following statements:
1. Mortimer Wheeler's theory that an Aryan invasion destroyed the Harappan cities is now widely accepted.
2. The Cemetery H culture of Punjab is a Late Harappan culture.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: B. 2 only

Statement 2 is correct. Statement 1 is wrong: the invasion theory has been abandoned because the skeletons come from different levels and the decline began earlier. So (a), (c) and (d) are wrong.

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