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Population composition

తెలుగులో వివరణ

Human geography of India · Part 2 / 4 · Fact-checked on · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

What India's population is made of: the sex ratio and child sex ratio (Census 2011, NFHS-5) and the laws and schemes on them; age structure, the dependency ratio and the demographic dividend; Census literacy; rural and urban shares; main and marginal workers and the four worker categories; language families and the Eighth Schedule; religious composition; and the Human Development Index.

Each idea is explained first in Telugu (తెలుగు), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Telugu and revise it in English.

భాగం 1లో మన దేశంలో ఎంతమంది ఉన్నారో లెక్కపెట్టాం. కానీ మొత్తం సంఖ్య ఒక్కటే సమాజం గురించి పెద్దగా చెప్పదు. రెండు ఊళ్లలో వెయ్యి మందే ఉన్నా, ఒక ఊళ్లో పిల్లలు ఎక్కువ, ఇంకో ఊళ్లో ముసలివాళ్లు ఎక్కువ ఉంటే ఆ రెండు ఊళ్ల అవసరాలు వేరు కదా. ఈ భాగంలో స్త్రీ-పురుషుల సంఖ్య, వయసు, చదువు, ఊరు-పట్టణం, పని, భాష, మతం, చివరగా మానవ అభివృద్ధి సూచిక చూస్తాం. (→ English: population composition · हिन्दी: जनसंख्या संरचना)

In exam EnglishPart 1 counted India's people and asked where they live and how fast their numbers grow. A total, however, says little about the kind of society behind it. Two countries of the same size can differ sharply if one has many children and the other many old people, or if one is largely literate and the other is not. This part looks inside the total. It covers the balance of women and men, the age structure and what it means for the economy, literacy, the split between village and town, the kinds of work people do, the languages they speak and the religions they follow, and finally the Human Development Index, which sums up health, schooling and income in one figure.

లింగ నిష్పత్తి అంటే ప్రతి 1,000 మంది మగవారికి ఎంతమంది ఆడవారు అని. 2011లో మన దేశంలో 943, అంటే వెయ్యి మంది అబ్బాయిలకు 943 మంది అమ్మాయిలే. సాధారణంగా ఆడవాళ్లు ఎక్కువ కాలం బతుకుతారు కాబట్టి ఈ సంఖ్య వెయ్యికి పైనే ఉండాలి; తక్కువగా ఉండటం హెచ్చరిక. కేరళ 1,084తో ముందుంది, హర్యానా 879తో వెనక ఉంది. దమన్-దీవ్‌లో 618, ఎందుకంటే అక్కడికి పని కోసం మగవాళ్లు ఎక్కువగా వచ్చారు. (→ English: sex ratio · हिन्दी: लिंगानुपात)

In exam EnglishThe Census measures the balance between women and men as the sex ratio: the number of females for every 1,000 males. A ratio below 1,000 means fewer women than men. India's ratio in Census 2011 was 943, up from 933 in 2001, yet still well short of parity. Most rich countries have more women than men, because women tend to live longer, so a low figure is a warning sign rather than a natural feature. The state pattern is uneven. Kerala, at 1,084, was the only state with more women than men, and Puducherry (1,037) led the union territories. At the other end, Haryana had the lowest ratio among states (879), and Daman and Diu (618), where many male workers had migrated in, was the lowest of all.

0–6 ఏళ్ల పిల్లల్లో 1,000 మంది అబ్బాయిలకు ఎంతమంది అమ్మాయిలు అనేది శిశు లింగ నిష్పత్తి. ఇది 2001లో 927 నుంచి 2011లో 918కి పడిపోయింది. కొడుకే కావాలనుకునే కుటుంబాలు స్కానింగ్‌లో ఆడపిల్ల అని తెలిసి గర్భం తీయించుకోవడం, పుట్టిన ఆడపిల్లను తక్కువగా చూసుకోవడం దీనికి కారణం. అందుకే 1994 చట్టం పుట్టబోయే బిడ్డ లింగం చెప్పడాన్ని నిషేధిస్తుంది; 2015లో బేటీ బచావో బేటీ పఢావో మొదలైంది. NFHS-5లో పుట్టుకలో నిష్పత్తి 929 మాత్రమే. (→ English: sex ratio; child sex ratio · हिन्दी: लिंगानुपात; शिशु लिंगानुपात)

In exam EnglishWhy are women 'missing'? Part of the answer is in the child sex ratio, which counts girls per 1,000 boys aged 0–6. It fell from 927 in 2001 to 918 in 2011, a sign that families with a strong preference for sons were using prenatal tests to identify and abort female foetuses, and that girls who were born often received less care. Haryana's child ratio (834) was the lowest of any state. The state's response came on two fronts. The Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, 1994, as amended in 2003, bans telling parents the sex of a foetus and regulates the clinics that can find it out. Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, launched at Panipat in January 2015, works on attitudes. NFHS-5 (2019–21) recorded 1,020 women per 1,000 men in the households it surveyed, but a sex ratio at birth of only 929.

జనాభా పిరమిడ్ అంటే ప్రతి వయసు గుంపుకు ఒక గీత గీసి, ఒకవైపు మగవాళ్లు, మరోవైపు ఆడవాళ్లు, కింద చిన్న పిల్లలు పెట్టిన బొమ్మ. పిల్లలు ఎక్కువగా పుడితే కింద వెడల్పు, పైన సన్నగా పిరమిడ్‌లా ఉంటుంది. పుట్టేవాళ్లు తగ్గితే కింద సన్నబడి మధ్యలో ఉబ్బుతుంది, పీపాలా. 2011లో మూడో వంతు కంటే కొంచెం తక్కువ మంది 15 లోపు, ఐదింట మూడు వంతులు 15–59, 8.6 శాతం 60 పైబడినవారు. అంటే మన ఉబ్బు ఇప్పుడు పని చేసే యువ వయసులో ఉంది. (→ English: age structure; population pyramid · हिन्दी: आयु संरचना; जनसंख्या पिरामिड)

In exam EnglishAge structure is the share of people in each age group, and it is usually drawn as a population pyramid: bars for each five-year group, males on one side and females on the other, with the youngest at the bottom. A country with high birth rates has a wide base and a narrow top, like a true pyramid. As birth rates fall, the base narrows and the middle bulges, giving a shape closer to a beehive or barrel. Census 2011 found a little under a third of Indians below 15, about three-fifths aged 15–59 and about 8.6 per cent aged 60 or above. India's pyramid is therefore no longer broad-based: the bulge has moved into the young working ages, which is exactly the stage the demographic transition of Part 1 predicts.

ఒక ఇంట్లో సంపాదించేవాళ్లు ఇద్దరు, తినేవాళ్లు ఆరుగురు అయితే భారం ఎక్కువ; సంపాదించేవాళ్లు నలుగురు అయితే భారం తక్కువ. దేశానికీ అంతే: పని చేసే వయసు 100 మందికి ఎంతమంది పిల్లలు, ముసలివాళ్లు అనేదే ఆధారిత నిష్పత్తి. పిల్లలు తగ్గి పని చేసేవాళ్లు పెరిగిన కాలమే జనాభా లాభాంశం. కానీ వాళ్లకు ఆరోగ్యం, నైపుణ్యం, ఉద్యోగం ఉంటేనే లాభం. ఆర్థిక సర్వే 2018–19 ప్రకారం ఈ వాటా సుమారు 2041లో గరిష్ఠం; తర్వాత వృద్ధాప్యం, అది ఇప్పటికే దక్షిణ రాష్ట్రాల్లో కనిపిస్తోంది. (→ English: dependency ratio; demographic dividend · हिन्दी: निर्भरता अनुपात; जनांकिकीय लाभांश)

In exam EnglishThe economic meaning of the age structure is captured by the dependency ratio: the number of children and elderly for every 100 people of working age. Children and the old mostly consume, while those of working age produce, save and pay taxes. When fertility falls, the ratio drops, because there are fewer children to support and the large cohorts born earlier are now of working age. This window is called the demographic dividend. It is an opportunity, not a guarantee: the extra workers raise growth only if they are healthy, skilled and find jobs, which is why the debate in India links the dividend to schooling and employment. The Economic Survey 2018–19 projected that India's working-age share would peak around 2041. After that the window closes and ageing begins, already visible in Kerala and the southern states, where fertility fell first.

జనగణన ప్రకారం ఏడేళ్లు నిండి, ఏ భాషలోనైనా అర్థం చేసుకుని చదవగలిగి, రాయగలిగినవారే అక్షరాస్యులు. చదవడం ఒక్కటే వస్తే చాలదు; బడికి వెళ్లి ఉండాల్సిన అవసరం లేదు. ఉదాహరణకు బడికి వెళ్లని మా అమ్మమ్మ పెద్దల బడిలో చదవడం, రాయడం నేర్చుకుంటే ఆమె అక్షరాస్యురాలే. 2011లో అక్షరాస్యత రేటు సుమారు 74 శాతం: మగవారు 82, ఆడవారు 65. కేరళ 94తో ముందు, బిహార్ 62తో వెనక. (→ English: literacy rate · हिन्दी: साक्षरता दर)

In exam EnglishFor the Census a literate person is anyone aged seven or above who can both read and write with understanding in any language. Reading alone does not count, and no formal schooling is needed. Children up to six are left out of the calculation, so the literacy rate is literates as a share of the population aged seven and above. In 2011 it was about 74 per cent: about 82 per cent for men and about 65 per cent for women, a gender gap of roughly 16.7 percentage points, narrower than in 2001 but still wide. Kerala led the states at about 94 per cent and Bihar was last at about 62 per cent. The north-central states had the lowest female literacy, and the gap between them and the south and north-east is one of the clearest regional divides in Indian social data.

2011లో మన దేశంలో సుమారు 69 శాతం మంది పల్లెల్లో, 31 శాతం మంది పట్టణాల్లో ఉన్నారు; అంటే ముగ్గురిలో ఇద్దరి కంటే ఎక్కువ మంది ఇంకా పల్లెవాసులే. వ్యాపారం, పరిశ్రమలు ఎక్కువగా ఉన్న దక్షిణ, పశ్చిమ రాష్ట్రాలు ఎక్కువ పట్టణీకరణ చెందాయి. గంగా మైదాన రాష్ట్రాలు, ఒడిశా, అస్సాం, కొండ రాష్ట్రాలు ఎక్కువగా పల్లెలే; హిమాచల్‌లో పది మందిలో ఒక్కరే పట్టణంలో. ఏది పట్టణం అనేది భాగం 3లో చూస్తాం. (→ English: rural–urban composition · हिन्दी: ग्रामीण–नगरीय संरचना)

In exam EnglishRural–urban composition is the split of the population between villages and towns. In Census 2011 about 68.8 per cent of Indians lived in rural areas and about 31.2 per cent in urban areas, so more than two in three were still villagers, even though the urban share had risen by more than three points since 2001. The split varies a great deal across the country. The southern and western states, with longer histories of trade, industry and services, are more urban; the Ganga plain states, Odisha, Assam and the Himalayan states remain overwhelmingly rural, and Himachal Pradesh, where only about one person in ten lived in a town, was the least urban state. How the Census decides what counts as urban, and how fast the urban share is growing, are taken up in Part 3.

జనగణనలో ఏడాదిలో ఆరు నెలలు (183 రోజులు) లేదా అంతకంటే ఎక్కువ పని చేసినవారు ప్రధాన కార్మికులు, తక్కువ చేసినవారు ఉపాంత కార్మికులు, మిగిలినవారు (విద్యార్థులు, ఇంటి పని మాత్రమే చేసేవారు, రిటైర్ అయినవారు) పని చేయనివారు. మొత్తం జనాభాలో పని చేసేవారి శాతమే పని భాగస్వామ్య రేటు: 2011లో 39.8 శాతం; ఆడవారికి 25.5 మాత్రమే, ఎందుకంటే ఇంట్లో అమ్మ చేసే జీతం లేని పనిని లెక్కలోకి తీసుకోరు. 2011లో మొదటిసారి సొంత భూమి సాగుచేసే రైతుల కంటే వ్యవసాయ కూలీలు ఎక్కువయ్యారు. (→ English: work participation rate; main worker; marginal worker · हिन्दी: कार्य सहभागिता दर; मुख्य श्रमिक; सीमांत श्रमिक)

In exam EnglishThe Census divides people by economic activity in the year before the count. Main workers worked for six months (183 days) or more; marginal workers worked for less than that; everyone else is a non-worker, such as a student, a person doing only household duties, a dependant or a retired person. The work participation rate is workers, main and marginal together, as a percentage of the whole population. In 2011 it was about 39.8 per cent: about 53 per cent for men but only about 25.5 per cent for women, partly because much of women's unpaid work at home is not counted as economic activity. Workers are further placed in four categories, shown in the table: cultivators, agricultural labourers, household industry workers and other workers. A landmark of 2011 was that agricultural labourers outnumbered cultivators for the first time.
The four Census categories of workers (Census 2011)
CategoryWho is includedShare of all workers, 2011
CultivatorsWork on land they own, lease or hold, for cropsAbout 24.6%
Agricultural labourersWork on another person's land for wages in cash or kindAbout 30.0%
Household industry workersProduce, process or repair goods within the household, mostly by family membersAbout 3.8%
Other workersAll others: factories, trade, transport, services, government, plantations and so onAbout 41.6%

మన దేశంలోని వందలాది మాతృభాషలు నాలుగు కుటుంబాలకు చెందుతాయి. ఉత్తరాన హిందీ, బెంగాలీ, మరాఠీ వంటివి ఇండో-యూరోపియన్; మన తెలుగు, తమిళం, కన్నడం, మలయాళం ద్రావిడ కుటుంబం, మధ్య భారతదేశంలోని గోండీ కూడా. సంతాలీ, ముండారీ, ఖాసీ ఆస్ట్రిక్; బోడో, మణిపురీ, నాగా భాషలు చైనా-టిబెటన్. రాజ్యాంగంలోని ఎనిమిదవ షెడ్యూల్‌లో 22 భాషలు: మొదట 14, 1967లో సింధీ, 1992లో మూడు, 2003లో నాలుగు చేరాయి. 2011లో 43.6 శాతం మంది మాతృభాష హిందీ. (→ English: Eighth Schedule; language family · हिन्दी: आठवीं अनुसूची; भाषा परिवार)

In exam EnglishIndia's hundreds of mother tongues belong to four main language families. The Indo-European family, through its Indo-Aryan branch, covers about three-quarters of speakers across the north, west and east: Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Odia and others. The Dravidian family dominates the south (Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam) and survives in central India in tribal languages such as Gondi and Kurukh. The Austric family includes the Munda languages of the central tribal belt, such as Santhali, Mundari and Ho, and Khasi in Meghalaya. The Sino-Tibetan family is spoken along the Himalaya and in the north-east, including Bodo, Manipuri and the Naga languages. The Constitution lists 22 languages in the Eighth Schedule: fourteen at the start, Sindhi added in 1967, Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali in 1992, and Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali in 2003. In Census 2011 Hindi was the mother tongue of about 43.6 per cent, followed by Bengali and Marathi.

జనగణనలో ప్రతి వ్యక్తి తన మతం ఏదని చెబితే అదే రాస్తారు. 2011లో హిందువులు 79.8, ముస్లింలు 14.2, క్రైస్తవులు 2.3, సిక్కులు 1.7, బౌద్ధులు 0.7, జైనులు 0.4 శాతం. దేశం మొత్తం సంఖ్య కంటే ప్రాంతాల వారీ చిత్రం వేరు: జమ్మూ కశ్మీర్, లక్షద్వీప్‌లో ముస్లింలు, నాగాలాండ్, మిజోరం, మేఘాలయలో క్రైస్తవులు, పంజాబ్‌లో సిక్కులు ఎక్కువ; బౌద్ధులు మహారాష్ట్ర, సిక్కిం, అరుణాచల్, లద్దాఖ్‌లో. (→ English: religious composition · हिन्दी: धार्मिक संरचना)

In exam EnglishThe Census also records religion as each person states it. In 2011 Hindus formed about 79.8 per cent of the population, Muslims about 14.2 per cent, Christians about 2.3 per cent, Sikhs about 1.7 per cent, Buddhists about 0.7 per cent and Jains about 0.4 per cent, with smaller groups making up the rest. The national picture hides strong regional concentrations, which is what geography questions test. Muslims formed the majority in Jammu and Kashmir (then a state) and in Lakshadweep; Christians were the majority in Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya; Sikhs were the majority in Punjab; and Buddhists were concentrated in Maharashtra, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Ladakh. These patterns are rooted in history, in the routes of trade and conquest, and in the work of reformers and missionaries.

ఒక ఇంటి బాగోగులు ఆదాయం ఒక్కటే చూసి చెప్పలేం; ఇంట్లోవాళ్ల ఆరోగ్యం, చదువు కూడా చూడాలి. మానవ అభివృద్ధి సూచిక అదే చేస్తుంది: ఆయుర్దాయం, చదువుకున్న సంవత్సరాలు, తలసరి ఆదాయం అనే మూడింటినీ కలిపి 0 నుంచి 1 మధ్య ఒక సంఖ్య ఇస్తుంది. దీన్ని 1990 నుంచి ఐక్యరాజ్యసమితి అభివృద్ధి కార్యక్రమం ప్రచురిస్తోంది. 2025 నివేదికలో భారత్ 193 దేశాల్లో 130వ స్థానం, విలువ 0.685, మధ్యస్థ వర్గం. (→ English: Human Development Index · हिन्दी: मानव विकास सूचकांक)

In exam EnglishAll these features can be pulled together into a measure of how well people live. The Human Development Index, published by the United Nations Development Programme since 1990 and associated with the economist Mahbub ul Haq, combines three dimensions: a long and healthy life, measured by life expectancy at birth; knowledge, measured by mean years of schooling of adults and expected years of schooling for children; and a decent standard of living, measured by gross national income per person in purchasing-power terms. Each dimension is turned into an index between 0 and 1 and the three are averaged. The Human Development Report 2025 placed India 130th of 193 countries, with a value of 0.685, in the medium human development group. Within India, Kerala's high literacy and long life expectancy explain why it scores well above states with similar incomes.

ఈ భాగంలోని ముక్కలన్నీ కలుస్తాయి. పిల్లలు తక్కువగా పుట్టడం వల్ల పిరమిడ్ ఆకారం మారి జనాభా లాభాంశం వస్తుంది; దాని ఫలితం చదువు, నైపుణ్యం, పని మీద ఆధారపడుతుంది. తక్కువ లింగ నిష్పత్తి, ఆడవారి తక్కువ చదువు, తక్కువ పని ఒకే ఉత్తర-మధ్య రాష్ట్రాల్లో కనిపిస్తాయి; కేరళ అన్నింటిలో ముందుంటుంది. ఇదంతా భాగం 3లోని వలసలు, పట్టణాలకు నేపథ్యం. (→ English: population composition; demographic dividend · हिन्दी: जनसंख्या संरचना; जनांकिकीय लाभांश)

In exam EnglishThe pieces of this part fit together. Falling fertility, the theme of Part 1, is what reshapes the age pyramid and opens the demographic dividend; whether India gains from it depends on literacy, skills and work, which are exactly where the gender gaps in this part are widest. A low sex ratio and low female literacy and work participation tend to occur in the same north-central states, while Kerala scores well on all of them and on human development too. Rural–urban composition, the mix of workers and the language and religious map are the background against which migration and urbanisation, the subject of Part 3, should be read. For the exam, keep the 2011 figures, the Census definitions (literate, main and marginal worker) and the HDI's three dimensions clearly in mind.

Exam traps

Recap

Practice questions

Q1. In the Census of India, the sex ratio is expressed as

  1. males per 1,000 females
  2. females per 1,000 males
  3. females per 100 males
  4. girls per 1,000 boys at birth only
Show answer

Answer: B. females per 1,000 males

India's Census counts females per 1,000 males. Males per 1,000 females is the reverse convention used in many other countries; per 100 is not the Indian measure; and the sex ratio at birth is a separate, narrower measure.

Q2. Consider the following statements about Census 2011:
1. Kerala was the only state with more females than males.
2. The child sex ratio (0–6 years) was higher in 2011 than in 2001.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct: Kerala's ratio was 1,084. Statement 2 is wrong: the child sex ratio fell from 927 to 918. So '2 only', 'both' and 'neither' are wrong.

Q3. For the purpose of the Census, a person is treated as literate if he or she

  1. has completed at least primary school
  2. is aged seven or above and can read and write with understanding in any language
  3. is aged five or above and can read in any scheduled language
  4. can sign his or her name
Show answer

Answer: B. is aged seven or above and can read and write with understanding in any language

The Census test is age seven or more plus the ability both to read and to write with understanding in any language. No schooling is required, so the first option is wrong; the age is seven, not five, and reading alone or in a scheduled language only is not enough; signing a name is not literacy.

Q4. With reference to the Census, consider the following statements:
1. A main worker is one who worked for six months or more in the reference year.
2. The work participation rate is the percentage of main workers alone in the total population.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct (183 days or more). Statement 2 is wrong: the rate counts all workers, main and marginal together. So '2 only', 'both' and 'neither' are wrong.

Q5. In Census 2011, which category formed the largest share of India's workers?

  1. Cultivators
  2. Agricultural labourers
  3. Household industry workers
  4. Other workers
Show answer

Answer: D. Other workers

'Other workers' (services, manufacturing outside the household, trade, transport and so on) were about 41.6 per cent. Agricultural labourers (about 30 per cent) outnumbered cultivators (about 24.6 per cent) for the first time but neither was the largest; household industry was under 4 per cent.

Q6. Match the language family with a language that belongs to it:
A. Austric — 1. Bodo
B. Dravidian — 2. Santhali
C. Sino-Tibetan — 3. Kurukh
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

  1. A-2, B-3, C-1
  2. A-1, B-3, C-2
  3. A-3, B-2, C-1
  4. A-2, B-1, C-3
Show answer

Answer: A. A-2, B-3, C-1

Santhali is a Munda (Austric) language, Kurukh (spoken by the Oraon) is Dravidian, and Bodo is Sino-Tibetan. The other codes pair Bodo with Austric, Kurukh with Austric or Bodo with Dravidian, all wrong.

Q7. Which of the following languages were added to the Eighth Schedule in 2003?
1. Bodo
2. Konkani
3. Maithili
4. Santhali
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

  1. 1, 2 and 3 only
  2. 1, 3 and 4 only
  3. 2 and 4 only
  4. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Show answer

Answer: B. 1, 3 and 4 only

Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali were added in 2003. Konkani came earlier, in 1992 with Manipuri and Nepali, so every option containing 2 is wrong.

Q8. Consider the following statements about the Human Development Index:
1. Its three dimensions are health, knowledge and a decent standard of living.
2. The standard of living is measured by gross national income per person in purchasing-power terms.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: C. Both 1 and 2

Both are correct: the HDI combines a long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of living, the last measured by GNI per person at purchasing-power parity. So '1 only', '2 only' and 'neither' are wrong.

← Part 1All partsNext: Part 3 →

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Sources