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The early medieval south

मराठीत स्पष्टीकरण

The Guptas and after · Part 4 / 4 · Fact-checked on · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

The Pallavas of Kanchi from Mahendravarman I to Rajasimha; the Chalukyas of Badami, Pulakeshin II and the Aihole inscription; Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal; the Rashtrakutas, the Kailasa temple, Amoghavarsha I and Takkolam; the imperial Cholas from Vijayalaya to Kulottunga I; Chola village assemblies and the Uttaramerur inscriptions; the Dravida temple, Chola bronzes, the Alvars and Nayanars.

Each idea is explained first in Marathi (मराठी), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Marathi and revise it in English.

उत्तरेत हर्ष आणि वारस गंगेच्या खोऱ्यासाठी लढत असताना दक्षिणेत वेगळ्या मोठ्या सत्ता. सहाव्या शतकाच्या अखेरीपासून कांचीचे पल्लव आणि बदामीचे चालुक्य सुमारे दोनशे वर्षे लढले. आठव्या शतकात राष्ट्रकूट यांनी चालुक्यांची जागा घेतली. नवव्या शतकापासून कावेरीच्या त्रिभुज प्रदेशात चोळ उदयाला आले — श्रीलंका, आग्नेय आशियापर्यंत आरमार. युद्धांबरोबर द्राविड शैली देवळे आणि तमिळ संतांची भक्तिगीते. दोन भावकींचे बांधाचे भांडण पिढ्यान्‌पिढ्या चालले तरी दोघेही गावचे देऊळ बांधण्यात स्पर्धा करतात तसे. (→ English: Pallavas · Chalukyas of Badami · Rashtrakutas · Cholas · Dravida style · हिन्दी: पल्लव · बादामी के चालुक्य · राष्ट्रकूट · चोल · द्रविड़ शैली)

In exam EnglishWhile Harsha and his successors fought over the Ganga valley, the peninsula had its own great powers. From the late sixth century the Pallavas kings of Kanchi and the Chalukyas of Badami fought each other for some two hundred years. In the eighth century the Rashtrakutas kings replaced the Chalukyas in the Deccan and took part in the struggle for Kannauj described in Part 3. From the ninth century the Cholas kings rose in the Kaveri delta and built the strongest kingdom the south had yet seen, with a navy that reached Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Alongside the wars, these dynasties created the Dravida style of temple building and supported the devotional poetry of the Tamil saints. This part takes them in turn and ends with Chola village government, which UPSC asks about often.

कांचीचे पल्लव सहाव्या शतकाच्या अखेरीस सिंहविष्णूच्या काळात कावेरीपर्यंत पसरले. मुलगा पहिला महेंद्रवर्मा (सुमारे 600–630) योद्धा, बांधकाम करणारा आणि लेखक. 'मत्तविलास प्रहसन' — दारू प्यालेला कापालिक आणि लोभी बौद्ध भिक्षू यांची थट्टा करणारे नाटक. खडक कोरून देवळे — 'वीट, लाकूड, धातू, चुना न वापरता देऊळ केले' असा मंडगपट्टू शिलालेखाचा अभिमान. डोंगर फोडून विहीर खणावी तसे. अप्परने त्याला जैन धर्मातून शिवभक्तीकडे वळवले अशी परंपरा. दुसऱ्या पुलकेशीकडे उत्तरेचा प्रदेश गेला — पल्लव-चालुक्य वैर सुरू. कांचीची 'घटिका' विद्यासंस्था प्रसिद्ध. (→ English: Pallavas · Mahendravarman I · ghatika · हिन्दी: पल्लव · महेंद्रवर्मन प्रथम · घटिका)

In exam EnglishThe Pallavas power at Kanchi grew under Simhavishnu in the late sixth century, who pushed his frontier south to the Kaveri. His son Mahendravarman I (about 600–630 CE) was a soldier, a builder and a writer. He wrote the Sanskrit farce Mattavilasa Prahasana, which pokes fun at a drunken Kapalika ascetic and a greedy Buddhist monk. He began cutting temples into rock: an inscription at Mandagapattu boasts that he made a shrine without brick, timber, metal or mortar. Tradition says the saint Appar turned him from Jainism to the worship of Shiva. In his reign the Pallavas lost territory in the north to the Chalukya Pulakeshin II, opening the long feud between the two houses. Kanchi was also known for its ghatika, a college of Brahmanical learning; the Kadamba founder Mayurasharman is said to have gone there to study.

महेंद्रवर्म्याचा मुलगा पहिला नरसिंहवर्मा 'मामल्ल' (सुमारे 630–668) याने डाव उलटवला — दुसऱ्या पुलकेशीला हरवून 642 मध्ये वातापी (बदामी) घेतली, 'वातापीकोंड' पदवी; पुलकेशी लढाईत मारला गेला. ह्युएन त्सांग याच काळात कांचीला आला. मामल्लपुरममध्ये पाच एकाश्म रथ — प्रत्येक एकाच खडकातून कोरलेले पूर्ण देऊळ; 'अर्जुनाची तपश्चर्या' हे मोठे शिल्प. नंतर दुसरा नरसिंहवर्मा राजसिंह (सुमारे 700–728) याने दगड रचून बांधले — किनारी मंदिर आणि कांचीचे कैलासनाथ. एका ओंडक्यातून बाहुली कोरण्याकडून दगड रचून घर बांधण्याकडे वळावे तसे. 1984 पासून युनेस्को वारसा. (→ English: Narasimhavarman I · Vatapi · Shore Temple · हिन्दी: नरसिंहवर्मन प्रथम · वातापी · तट मंदिर)

In exam EnglishMahendravarman's son Narasimhavarman I, called Mamalla (about 630–668 CE), turned the tables. He defeated Pulakeshin II, captured the Chalukya capital Vatapi (Badami) in 642 CE and took the title Vatapikonda, 'the one who took Vatapi'; Pulakeshin died in the fighting. Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchi in his reign. The port of Mamallapuram, named after him, holds the five monolithic rathas, each a whole shrine carved from a single rock, and the huge open-air relief often called Arjuna's Penance or the Descent of the Ganga. A later king, Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha (about 700–728 CE), took the next step and built in dressed stone: the Shore Temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi are his. The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1984.

बदामीचे चालुक्य पहिल्या पुलकेशीपासून उदयाला आले — 543 चा बदामी शिलालेख: वातापीला तटबंदी, अश्वमेध. सर्वांत थोर दुसरा पुलकेशी (सुमारे 610–642) — नर्मदेवर हर्षाला हरवले, दख्खनचा मोठा भाग घेतला. 634 चा ऐहोळे शिलालेख — जैन कवी रविकीर्तीने संस्कृत श्लोकांत रचला, मेगुटी मंदिरावर कोरला; स्वतःची तुलना कालिदास आणि भारवीशी केली. भाऊ कुब्ज विष्णुवर्धनाला वेंगीला पाठवले — त्याचे घराणे म्हणजे पूर्व चालुक्य, पुढे चोळांशी सोयरीक. मोठ्या कुटुंबातला धाकटा भाऊ दुसऱ्या गावी वेगळा संसार थाटतो तसे. 642 मध्ये वातापी गेली तरी वारसांनी राज्य परत मिळवले. (→ English: Chalukyas of Badami · Aihole inscription · Eastern Chalukyas · हिन्दी: बादामी के चालुक्य · ऐहोल अभिलेख · पूर्वी चालुक्य)

In exam EnglishThe Chalukyas of Badami rose under Pulakeshin I, whose rock inscription at Badami, dated 543 CE, records that he fortified Vatapi and performed the horse sacrifice. The greatest king of the line, Pulakeshin II (about 610–642 CE), defeated Harsha on the Narmada and spread his power over much of the Deccan. His achievements are set out in the Aihole inscription of 634 CE, composed in Sanskrit verse by his Jain court poet Ravikirti and engraved on the Meguti temple at Aihole; Ravikirti even compares himself with Kalidasa and Bharavi. Pulakeshin placed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana in charge of Vengi in the eastern Deccan, and Vishnuvardhana's line became the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, a separate dynasty that later married into the Chola royal family. Pulakeshin's reign ended in disaster when the Pallavas took Vatapi in 642 CE, but his successors recovered the kingdom.

दख्खनमधला पहिला मोठा देवळांचा समूह चालुक्यांचा. ऐहोळेत डझनावारी सुरुवातीची देवळे — लाडखान, गोलाकार मागचा भाग असलेले दुर्गा मंदिर; 'मंदिर बांधणीची प्रयोगशाळा'. नवे पदार्थ करून पाहणाऱ्या स्वयंपाकघरासारखी. बदामीत चार लेणी मंदिरे — तीन ब्राह्मणी, एक जैन. पट्टदकलमध्ये उत्तरेची नागर शैली आणि द्राविड शैली यांची देवळे शेजारी शेजारी. दुसऱ्या विक्रमादित्याने (733–744) कांची लुटली नाही, कैलासनाथाला दाने दिली; राणी लोकमहादेवीने त्याच नमुन्यावर पट्टदकलचे विरूपाक्ष मंदिर बांधले. 1987 पासून युनेस्को. शेवटच्या राजाला राष्ट्रकूट दंतिदुर्गाने हटवले. (→ English: Dravida style · Pattadakal · Virupaksha temple · हिन्दी: द्रविड़ शैली · पट्टदकल · विरूपाक्ष मंदिर)

In exam EnglishThe Chalukyas left the first great group of temples in the Deccan. Aihole has dozens of early shrines, among them the Lad Khan temple and the Durga temple with its rounded (apsidal) end, and is often called a laboratory of Indian temple building. At Badami four cave temples were cut into the cliff, three Brahmanical and one Jain. At Pattadakal, temples in the northern Nagara style stand beside temples in the southern Dravida style. Vikramaditya II (733–744 CE) occupied Kanchi but, instead of plundering it, made gifts to the Kailasanatha temple there. To mark his victory his queen Lokamahadevi built the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal, modelled on that Pallava temple. Pattadakal has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1987. The last Chalukya of this line was overthrown by the Rashtrakuta Dantidurga in the mid-eighth century.

राष्ट्रकूट राज्याची स्थापना दंतिदुर्गाने सुमारे 753 मध्ये केली. पहिल्या कृष्णाने वेरूळचे कैलास मंदिर (लेणे 16) — एकाच डोंगराला वरून खाली कोरून, अंगणासह संपूर्ण देऊळ. नारळाची करवंटी आतून कोरून बाहुली करावी तसे. बौद्ध, ब्राह्मणी, जैन लेणी — 1983 पासून युनेस्को. ध्रुव आणि तिसरा गोविंद उत्तरेत जाऊन पाल आणि प्रतिहारांना हरवून परतले. पहिला अमोघवर्ष (814–878) राजधानी मान्यखेट; जिनसेनाला आश्रय; 'कविराजमार्ग' — कन्नड काव्यशास्त्राचा पहिला ग्रंथ. सुलेमानने त्याला जगातील चार थोर राजांपैकी एक म्हटले. (→ English: Rashtrakutas · Kailasa temple, Ellora · Kavirajamarga · हिन्दी: राष्ट्रकूट · कैलास मंदिर, एलोरा · कविराजमार्ग)

In exam EnglishThe Rashtrakutas kingdom was founded by Dantidurga around 753 CE. His successor Krishna I had the Kailasa temple at Ellora (cave 16) cut from one mass of hillside rock, the carvers starting at the top and removing stone downwards, until a whole temple and its courtyard stood free. Ellora as a whole, with Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jain caves side by side, has been a UNESCO site since 1983. Dhruva and Govinda III marched into the north and defeated both the Palas and the Pratiharas, though they did not stay. Amoghavarsha I (814–878 CE) made Manyakheta (Malkhed) his capital and ruled for over sixty years. He patronised the Jain teacher Jinasena, and the Kavirajamarga, the earliest surviving work on Kannada poetics, is credited to him or to a poet of his court. The Arab merchant Sulaiman counted the Rashtrakuta king among the four great rulers of the world.

शेवटचा थोर राष्ट्रकूट राजा तिसरा कृष्ण (939–967) याने चोळ राज्यावर स्वारी करून 949 मध्ये तक्कोलमच्या लढाईत पहिल्या परांतकाला हरवले; चोळ युवराज राजादित्य रणांगणावर मारला गेला. काही काळ तमिळ देशाचा उत्तर भाग त्यांच्या हाती. मग 973 मध्ये दुसऱ्या तैलाने शेवटच्या राजाला हटवून पश्चिमी चालुक्य घराणे (पुढे राजधानी कल्याणी) स्थापले. एका हंगामात जिंकलेला संघ पुढच्याच हंगामात कोसळावा तसे. कन्नड साहित्यात पंप, पोन्न, रन्न — 'तीन रत्ने'; पोन्नाला तिसऱ्या कृष्णाच्या दरबारात मान. शैव, वैष्णव, जैन सगळ्या संस्थांना आश्रय. (→ English: Rashtrakutas · battle of Takkolam · Pampa · हिन्दी: राष्ट्रकूट · तक्कोलम का युद्ध · पंप)

In exam EnglishThe last great Rashtrakutas king, Krishna III (939–967 CE), invaded the Chola kingdom and won the battle of Takkolam in 949 CE against Parantaka I; the Chola crown prince Rajaditya died on the field. For a time the Rashtrakutas held the northern part of the Tamil country. Soon after Krishna III, the dynasty collapsed: in 973 CE Taila II overthrew the last Rashtrakuta king and founded the line of the later Western Chalukyas, with their capital later at Kalyani. The Rashtrakuta age was also a time of Kannada literature. Pampa, Ponna and Ranna, remembered as the three gems of Kannada poetry, wrote in the tenth century; Ponna was honoured at the court of Krishna III. Like the Chalukyas before them, the Rashtrakutas supported Shaiva, Vaishnava and Jain institutions alike.

संगम काळातले चोळ वेगळे — हे साम्राज्यवादी चोळ विजयालयापासून सुरू, त्याने सुमारे 850 मध्ये तंजावर घेतले. पहिल्या परांतकाने (907–955) पांड्यांकडून मदुराई घेतली, तक्कोलममध्ये हरला. शिखर पहिला राजराज (985–1014) — चेर, पांड्यांना हरवून उत्तर श्रीलंका (पोलोन्नरुवा), मालदीवला आरमार. करासाठी जमीन मोजणी; शिलालेखाच्या सुरुवातीला राजाच्या पराक्रमांची यादी 'मेय्क्कीर्ती'. घराच्या दारावर घराण्याची थोरवी कोरावी तसे. तंजावरचे बृहदीश्वर मंदिर (सुमारे 1010) — गाभाऱ्यावर सुमारे 66 मीटर विमान. (→ English: Cholas · Rajaraja I · vimana · हिन्दी: चोल · राजराज प्रथम · विमान)

In exam EnglishThe later or imperial Cholas kings, distinct from the Cholas of the Sangam age, began with Vijayalaya, who took Thanjavur around 850 CE and made it his base. Parantaka I (907–955 CE) captured Madurai from the Pandyas, but lost to the Rashtrakutas at Takkolam. The dynasty reached its height under Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE). He defeated the Cheras and the Pandyas, annexed northern Sri Lanka, where Polonnaruwa became the Chola seat, and sent a fleet to the Maldives. He had land measured for revenue and began the custom of opening inscriptions with a historical introduction (meykkirti) listing the king's deeds. His Rajarajeshvara or Brihadeshvara temple at Thanjavur, completed around 1010 CE, has a vimana about 66 metres high over its sanctum.

राजराजाचा मुलगा पहिला राजेंद्र (1014–1044) आणखी पुढे — श्रीलंकेचा विजय पूर्ण; उत्तरेत गंगेपर्यंत जाऊन पाल राजा महीपालाला हरवले; 'गंगैकोंडचोळ' पदवी, नवी राजधानी गंगैकोंडचोळपुरम — मोठे मंदिर, मोठा तलाव. सुमारे 1025 मध्ये आरमाराने श्रीविजयवर (आग्नेय आशिया) हल्ला — चीनकडे जाणाऱ्या सागरी मार्गावर मलाक्का सामुद्रधुनीत त्यांची पकड; कडारमवरील हल्ल्याने चोळ व्यापार सुरक्षित. महामार्गावर नाका टाकून लुटणाऱ्याला हटवावे तसे. पहिल्या कुलोत्तुंगाने (1070–1122) वेंगी जोडली, जकाती रद्द केल्या, 1077 मध्ये चीनला दूत. तेराव्या शतकात ऱ्हास. (→ English: Rajendra I · Gangaikondacholapuram · Srivijaya · हिन्दी: राजेंद्र प्रथम · गंगैकोंडचोलपुरम · श्रीविजय)

In exam EnglishRajaraja's son Rajendra I (1014–1044 CE) went further still. He completed the conquest of Sri Lanka and led an army north to the Ganga, defeating the Pala king Mahipala, an expedition he celebrated by taking the title Gangaikondachola and founding a new capital, Gangaikondacholapuram, with a great temple and a large tank. Around 1025 CE his navy attacked the kingdom of Srivijaya in Southeast Asia, which controlled the sea route to China through the Straits of Malacca; the raid on its port of Kadaram (Kedah) protected Chola trade. Kulottunga I (1070–1122 CE), the son of an Eastern Chalukya king and a Chola princess, joined Vengi with the Chola kingdom, abolished many tolls and sent an embassy to China in 1077 CE. The kingdom faded in the thirteenth century as the Pandyas and Hoysalas rose.

चोळ कारभार — यूपीएससी सर्वाधिक विचारते तो. राज्य मंडलम → वलनाडू → नाडू (गावांचा समूह). गावे सभांद्वारे आपले काम चालवत. साध्या गावातील जमीनधारकांची सभा ऊर; ब्राह्मणांना दान दिलेल्या ब्रह्मदेय गावात महासभा; व्यापारी शहरात व्यापाऱ्यांची नगरम. उत्तरमेरूर शिलालेख (919, 921, पहिला परांतक): तीस प्रभाग; उमेदवाराकडे जमीन, घर, वय 35–70, वेदांचे ज्ञान; तीन वर्षांत काम केलेले, हिशेब न दिलेले अपात्र. ताडपत्री चिठ्ठ्या घड्यात टाकून लहान मुलगा काढतो — कुडवोलै. शाळेत चिठ्ठ्या टाकून वर्गप्रमुख निवडावा तसे. बागा, तलाव, वार्षिक कामे यांच्या समित्या (वारियम). (→ English: ur · mahasabha · nagaram · kudavolai · हिन्दी: ऊर · महासभा · नगरम · कुडवोलै)

In exam EnglishChola government is the part UPSC asks about most. The kingdom was divided into provinces (mandalam), which were split into valanadu and then nadu, groups of villages. Villages ran much of their own business through assemblies. The ur was the general assembly of landholders in an ordinary village; the mahasabha was the assembly of a brahmadeya village granted to Brahmanas; and the nagaram was the assembly of merchants in a trading town. Two inscriptions of Parantaka I at Uttaramerur, dated 919 and 921 CE, set out how the sabha there chose its committees. Each of the thirty wards put forward men who owned some land and a house, were between 35 and 70 years old and knew the Vedic texts; anyone who had served in the past three years or had failed to render accounts was barred. Each eligible name went on a palm-leaf slip; the slips were dropped into a pot and a small boy pulled one out, the method called kudavolai. The chosen men sat on committees (variyam) for gardens, tanks, the annual business of the village and other tasks.

या घराण्यांच्या देवळांत द्राविड शैली वाढताना दिसते: पल्लव खडक कोरलेले मंडप → एकाश्म रथ → दगड रचलेली देवळे. चालुक्य, राष्ट्रकूट यांचे पट्टदकल, वेरूळचे कैलास. चोळांच्या काळात पूर्ण रूप: गाभाऱ्यावर पायऱ्यांसारखे उंच विमान, पुढे मंडप, तटबंदी, प्रवेशद्वारावर गोपुर — पुढे विमानापेक्षा उंच. लहान मुलगा मोठा होऊन वडिलांपेक्षा उंच व्हावा तसे. चोळ कांस्य मूर्ती मेण ओतकाम पद्धतीने — ज्वाळांच्या वर्तुळात नाचणारा नटराज प्रसिद्ध. विष्णूचे गुणगान करणारे बारा आळवार आणि शिवाचे गुणगान करणारे त्रेसष्ट नायनार — तिरुमुरै, नालायिर दिव्य प्रबंधम. (→ English: Dravida style · vimana · gopuram · Alvars · Nayanars · हिन्दी: द्रविड़ शैली · विमान · गोपुरम · आलवार · नायनार)

In exam EnglishThe temples of these dynasties show the Dravida style growing up. The Pallavas moved from rock-cut halls under Mahendravarman to monolithic rathas under Mamalla and then to built stone temples under Rajasimha. The Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas added Pattadakal and the Kailasa at Ellora. Under the Cholas the style reached its full scale: a sanctum crowned by a towering, stepped vimana, halls (mandapa) in front, enclosing walls, and gateways, the gopuram, which in later centuries grew taller than the vimana itself. Chola craftsmen also cast bronze images by the lost-wax method, of which the Nataraja, Shiva dancing within a ring of flame, is the best known. The devotional hymns of the twelve Alvars poets, who sang of Vishnu, and the sixty-three Nayanars saints, who sang of Shiva, were sung in these temples; the Nayanar hymns were later gathered into the Tirumurai and the Alvar hymns into the Nalayira Divya Prabandham.
Southern temples to remember
TemplePlaceDynasty and kingType
Five rathasMamallapuramPallava, Narasimhavarman I MamallaMonolithic, each cut from one rock
Shore TempleMamallapuramPallava, Narasimhavarman II RajasimhaStructural stone
Kailasanatha templeKanchipuramPallava, Narasimhavarman II RajasimhaStructural stone
Virupaksha templePattadakalChalukya, built by Lokamahadevi, queen of Vikramaditya IIStructural, Dravida style
Kailasa temple (cave 16)ElloraRashtrakuta, Krishna ICarved from the rock, top down
Brihadeshvara (Rajarajeshvara)ThanjavurChola, Rajaraja IStructural, vimana about 66 m
Temple of the new capitalGangaikondacholapuramChola, Rajendra IStructural

चारही भाग एकत्र पाहिले तर — सत्ता प्रादेशिक झाली. गुप्त हे शेवटचे मोठे उत्तर भारतीय साम्राज्य; हर्षाने काही काळ पुन्हा उभे केले; नंतर उत्तर आणि दक्षिण दोन्ही एकाच घराण्याच्या हाती राहिले नाहीत. दक्षिणेत पल्लव, चालुक्य, राष्ट्रकूट आणि चोळ एकाच सुपीक नदीखोऱ्यांसाठी लढले, तरी मामल्लपुरम, पट्टदकल, वेरूळ, तंजावर अशी कलास्मारके मागे ठेवली. एकत्र कुटुंब विभक्त होऊन प्रत्येक घराने स्वतःचे देऊळ बांधावे तसे. भूदाने, देवळे, मांडलिक सगळीकडे; चोळ ग्रामसभा दाखवतात की स्थानिक स्वराज्य जुने आहे. पुढे मध्ययुगीन इतिहास. (→ English: Pallavas · Cholas · हिन्दी: पल्लव · चोल)

In exam EnglishLooking back over the four parts, the chapter traces how power in India became regional. The Guptas built the last large north Indian empire of the ancient period; Harsha briefly rebuilt one; after him no single dynasty held both north and south. In the peninsula, the Pallavas, Chalukya, Rashtrakuta and Cholas kings fought for the same rich river valleys, yet each left monuments that define Indian art: Mamallapuram, Pattadakal, Ellora and Thanjavur. Land grants, temples and feudatories ran through the whole period, and the Chola village assemblies show that local self-government had deep roots. The Rajput states, the Turkish invasions and the Delhi Sultanate, which come next in Medieval History, grew out of this regional world.

Exam traps

Recap

Practice questions

Q1. Which ruler captured the Chalukya capital Vatapi in 642 CE and took the title Vatapikonda?

  1. Mahendravarman I
  2. Narasimhavarman I
  3. Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha
  4. Dantidurga
Show answer

Answer: B. Narasimhavarman I

Answer (b). The Pallava Narasimhavarman I Mamalla defeated Pulakeshin II and took Vatapi in 642 CE. Mahendravarman I, his father, had lost ground to Pulakeshin; Rajasimha ruled about sixty years later and is known for the Shore Temple; Dantidurga was the Rashtrakuta who ended the Chalukya line in the eighth century.

Q2. Consider the following statements:
1. The Kailasa temple at Ellora was carved out of the rock under the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I.
2. The Shore Temple at Mamallapuram was built under Narasimhavarman I Mamalla.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Answer (a). Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is wrong: Mamalla's reign produced the monolithic rathas, while the structural Shore Temple was built by Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha. So (b) and (c), which accept statement 2, and (d), which rejects statement 1, are wrong.

Q3. Match List I with List II:
List I (Work) — List II (Associated with)
A. Mattavilasa Prahasana — 1. Amoghavarsha I or his court
B. Kavirajamarga — 2. Mahendravarman I
C. Aihole inscription — 3. Parantaka I
D. Uttaramerur inscriptions — 4. Ravikirti
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

  1. A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
  2. A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3
  3. A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4
  4. A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3
Show answer

Answer: A. A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3

Answer (a). Mahendravarman I wrote the Mattavilasa Prahasana; the Kavirajamarga is credited to Amoghavarsha I or a poet of his court; Ravikirti composed the Aihole inscription; the Uttaramerur inscriptions belong to Parantaka I. Option (b) swaps the first two works; (c) swaps Ravikirti and Parantaka; (d) gives the farce to Ravikirti and the inscription to Mahendravarman.

Q4. In the Chola period, kudavolai refers to

  1. a tax on trade paid at toll gates
  2. a method of choosing committee members by drawing palm-leaf tickets from a pot
  3. the assembly of merchants in a trading town
  4. the historical introduction at the start of royal inscriptions
Show answer

Answer: B. a method of choosing committee members by drawing palm-leaf tickets from a pot

Answer (b). The Uttaramerur inscriptions describe names written on palm-leaf tickets, placed in a pot and drawn by a young boy. Option (a) describes tolls, which Kulottunga I abolished; (c) is the nagaram; (d) is the meykkirti.

Q5. The battle of Takkolam (949 CE) was fought between

  1. Pulakeshin II and Narasimhavarman I
  2. Rajendra I and Mahipala
  3. Krishna III and Parantaka I
  4. Govinda III and Nagabhata II
Show answer

Answer: C. Krishna III and Parantaka I

Answer (c). At Takkolam the Rashtrakuta Krishna III defeated the Chola Parantaka I. Option (a) is the seventh-century Chalukya–Pallava war; (b) is Rajendra I's Ganga expedition of the eleventh century; (d) is Govinda III's northern campaign of the early ninth century.

Q6. With reference to Rajendra I Chola, consider the following statements:
1. He led an expedition to the Ganga and founded Gangaikondacholapuram.
2. His navy attacked the kingdom of Srivijaya.
3. He built the Brihadeshvara temple at Thanjavur.
Which of the statements given above are correct?

  1. 1 and 2 only
  2. 2 and 3 only
  3. 1 and 3 only
  4. 1, 2 and 3
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 and 2 only

Answer (a). Statements 1 and 2 describe Rajendra I. Statement 3 is wrong: the Brihadeshvara at Thanjavur was built by his father Rajaraja I. Options (b), (c) and (d) all include statement 3.

Q7. Consider the following pairs:
1. Ur : assembly of landholders in an ordinary village
2. Mahasabha : assembly of a brahmadeya village
3. Nagaram : assembly of merchants in a trading town
How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

  1. Only one
  2. Only two
  3. All three
  4. None
Show answer

Answer: C. All three

Answer (c). All three pairs are correct: the ur, the sabha or mahasabha and the nagaram were the three kinds of local assembly in the Chola kingdom. So (a), (b) and (d) undercount.

Q8. The Alvars were devotional poet-saints of the Tamil country who sang in praise of

  1. Shiva
  2. Vishnu
  3. the Jain tirthankaras
  4. the Buddha
Show answer

Answer: B. Vishnu

Answer (b). The twelve Alvars sang of Vishnu, and their hymns were gathered into the Nalayira Divya Prabandham. Shiva (a) was the god of the sixty-three Nayanars; neither group was Jain (c) or Buddhist (d).

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