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Soil formation and the four major soil groups

मराठीत स्पष्टीकरण

Soils and natural vegetation of India · Part 1 / 4 · Fact-checked on · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

How soil forms and is layered, how India's soils are classified (ICAR's eight groups and the USDA taxonomy in outline), and the four most widespread groups: alluvial, black (regur), red and yellow, and laterite, with their origin, properties, areas and crops.

Each idea is explained first in Marathi (मराठी), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Marathi and revise it in English.

आतापर्यंत भारताचे उंचसखलपण, नद्या आणि हवामान पाहिले. या तिन्हींतून दोन गोष्टी जन्मतात: जमिनीला झाकणारी माती आणि मातीला झाकणारी वनस्पती. घराला पाया जसा, तशी शेतीला माती: भात, गहू, कापूस, चहा कुठे पिकेल, शेत किती पाणी धरेल हे सगळे मातीवर ठरते. या भागात माती कशी बनते, तिचे थर, वर्गीकरण आणि मग चार मोठे प्रकार: गाळाची मृदा, काळी मृदा, तांबडी व पिवळी मृदा आणि जांभी मृदा. (→ English: alluvial soil; black soil (regur); red and yellow soil; laterite soil · हिन्दी: जलोढ़ मृदा; काली मृदा (रेगुर); लाल और पीली मृदा; लैटेराइट मृदा)

In exam EnglishThe earlier chapters on India described its relief, its rivers and its climate. This chapter turns to two things that grow out of all three: the soil that covers the land and the plants that cover the soil. Soil decides where wheat, rice, cotton or tea can be grown, how much water a field can hold and how easily the land is worn away, so it sits at the base of Indian farming. Part 1 explains how soil forms, how it is layered and how India's soils are grouped, and then looks closely at the four most widespread groups: alluvial soil, black soil (regur), red and yellow soil and laterite soil. Part 2 takes up the remaining soils and the problem of soil loss; Parts 3 and 4 move on to natural vegetation and forest cover.

माती म्हणजे जमिनीवरचा पातळ, सैल थर: खडकांचे कण, कुजलेली पाने-जीवांचे अवशेष, पाणी आणि हवा यांचे मिश्रण. विदारण खडक फोडते आणि सजीव सेंद्रिय पदार्थ मिसळतात. भाजीची चव साहित्य, आच आणि वेळ यांवर अवलंबून असते, तशी माती पाच घटकांवर: मूळ खडक (कण, रंग), हवामान (उष्णता, पाऊस), उंचसखलपणा (उतारावर माती वाहून जाते, दरीत साचते), सजीव (काळसर ह्युमस पोषकद्रव्ये व पाणी धरून ठेवतो) आणि काळ (परिपक्व मातीला हजारो वर्षे). (→ English: weathering; humus; parent rock · हिन्दी: अपक्षय; ह्यूमस; जनक चट्टान)

In exam EnglishSoil is the thin, loose cover on top of the land, a blend of rock particles, decayed plant and animal matter, water and air in which plants can take root. It is built slowly, as weathering breaks rock into fragments and living things add organic material. Five factors shape the result. The parent rock supplies the mineral grains and often the colour. Climate, above all heat and rainfall, sets the pace of weathering and decides whether minerals stay near the surface or are washed downward. Relief matters because steep slopes shed soil quickly, while gentle slopes and valley floors collect it. Plants, animals and micro-organisms churn the soil and add humus, the dark, decomposed organic matter that holds nutrients and water. The last factor is time: a mature soil with clear layers can take thousands of years to form.

खड्डा खणून त्याची भिंत पाहिली की मृदा परिच्छेद दिसतो: थरांची रचना, दह्याच्या भांड्यात वर साय, खाली दही, तळाशी भांडे तशी. वर A थर: ह्युमसने काळसर, मुळांनी भरलेली वरची माती, शेतीचा प्राण. खाली B थर: वरून वाहून आलेली चिकणमाती व खनिजे साचतात. C थर: अर्धवट फुटलेला मूळ खडक; त्याखाली कठीण खडक. वाळूमिश्रित माती पाणी धरत नाही; चिकणमाती पाणी धरते पण ओली झाली की चिकट, सुकली की कडक; तिन्हींचे संतुलित मिश्रण असलेली पोयटा माती बहुतेक पिकांना चांगली. वरची माती तयार व्हायला शतके, गमवायला काही हंगाम पुरतात. (→ English: soil profile; horizon; topsoil; loam · हिन्दी: मृदा परिच्छेदिका; संस्तर; ऊपरी मृदा; दोमट)

In exam EnglishDig a pit and look at its wall, and you see the soil profile: a stack of layers called horizons. The top one, the A horizon, is the topsoil, darkened by humus and full of roots and small creatures; farming depends on it. Below lies the B horizon or subsoil, with less organic matter and a build-up of fine clay and minerals washed down from above. The C horizon is the parent rock in a half-broken state, and under it is solid bedrock. Soils also differ in texture, the proportion of sand, silt and clay in them. Sandy soil drains quickly and keeps little water; clay holds water but turns sticky when wet and hard when dry; loam, a balanced mix of the three, suits most crops. Because topsoil takes centuries to build and can be lost in a few seasons, guarding it is the heart of soil conservation, which Part 2 explains.

आधी दोन प्रकार: नद्या आणि वारा वाहून आणून पसरवतात ती वाहून आलेली मृदा; खालच्या खडकापासून तिथेच बनते ती स्थानिक मृदा. बाजारातून आणलेला तांदूळ आणि परसात पिकलेली भाजी यातला फरक तसा. पूर्वी रंगावरून वर्गीकरण होई; नंतर ICAR ने उगम, रंग, घटक आणि ठिकाण पाहून आठ गट केले: गाळाची, काळी, तांबडी-पिवळी, जांभी, शुष्क, खारट, दलदली-पीटयुक्त आणि वन-पर्वतीय मृदा. सविस्तर नकाशांसाठी नागपूरची ICAR संस्था अमेरिकेच्या कृषी विभागाची पद्धत वापरते; त्यात दख्खनची काळी मृदा 'व्हर्टिसोल्स'. (→ English: transported soil; residual soil; ICAR; Vertisols · हिन्दी: परिवहित मृदा; अवशिष्ट मृदा; ICAR; वर्टीसोल)

In exam EnglishA useful first split is between transported soils, carried and laid down by rivers or wind, and residual soils, formed in place from the rock beneath them. Beyond that, Indian soils were once sorted mainly by colour. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) later grouped them into eight broad classes on the basis of how they formed, their colour, their make-up and where they occur: alluvial, black, red and yellow, laterite, arid, saline, peaty and marshy, and forest and mountain soils. Prelims questions usually follow this eight-fold scheme. For detailed survey maps, ICAR's National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning at Nagpur uses the soil taxonomy of the United States Department of Agriculture, which names orders such as Entisols, Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols; broadly, the clay-rich black soils of the Deccan belong to the Vertisols. The eight groups need to be known in detail and the modern taxonomy only in outline.

गाळाची मृदा भारतातील सर्वाधिक पसरलेली मृदा, देशाचा जवळपास दोन-पंचमांश भाग. ही वाहून आलेली मृदा: सिंधू, गंगा, ब्रह्मपुत्रा हिमालयातून गाळ आणून उत्तरेकडील मैदानात पसरवतात; महानदी, गोदावरी, कृष्णा, कावेरी पूर्व किनाऱ्यावरील त्रिभुज प्रदेशात तेच करतात. नदीने गाळ किती दूर, किती वेगाने आणला त्यानुसार वाळूमिश्रित पोयट्यापासून चिकणमातीपर्यंत. पुरानंतर नदीकाठी बसणारा बारीक गाळ आठवा. खोल, नांगरायला सोपी ही माती, नदीचे पाणी आणि कालवे यांमुळे गंगेच्या मैदानाने शतकानुशतके मोठ्या लोकसंख्येला अन्न दिले. (→ English: alluvial soil; transported soil; silt · हिन्दी: जलोढ़ मृदा; परिवहित मृदा; गाद)

In exam Englishalluvial soil is the most widespread soil of India, covering roughly two-fifths of the country. It is a transported soil. The Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra and their tributaries carry silt down from the Himalaya and spread it over the Northern Plains, while the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri lay down similar material in their deltas on the east coast. Narrower bands follow the river valleys of the Peninsula and parts of the coastal plains. Its texture ranges from sandy loam to clay, depending on how far and how fast the river carried the material before dropping it. The soil is generally deep and easy to work, and together with river water and canals this explains why the Ganga plain has fed large farming populations for many centuries.

गाळात दोन प्रकार. खादर: पूरमैदानातील नवा गाळ, जवळपास प्रत्येक पुरात ताजा गाळ येतो म्हणून बारीक कण, खूप सुपीक; दरवर्षी नवा रंग लावलेल्या भिंतीसारखा. बांगर: पूर न पोहोचणाऱ्या उंच भागातील जुना गाळ, कमी सुपीक, त्यात कंकर नावाचे चुनखडीचे खडे. गाळाच्या मृदेत पोटॅश भरपूर, फॉस्फरस कमी. भात, गहू, ऊस, डाळी, तेलबिया; खालच्या गंगा-ब्रह्मपुत्रा त्रिभुज प्रदेशात ताग. कोरड्या पश्चिम मैदानात पाण्याचा निचरा न झाल्यास आणि कालव्याचे पाणी जास्त दिल्यास क्षार वर येऊन जमीन खराब होते. (→ English: Khadar; Bhangar; kankar; potash; phosphorus · हिन्दी: खादर; बांगर; कंकड़; पोटाश; फ़ॉस्फ़ोरस)

In exam EnglishWithin the alluvium, two kinds already met in the physiography chapter matter for soils too. Khadar is the newer alluvium of the flood plains; fresh silt renews it in most flood seasons, so it is fine-grained and very fertile. Bhangar is the older alluvium on the higher ground beyond the reach of floods; it is less fertile and often holds lumps of lime called kankar. In chemical terms, alluvial soils are usually rich in potash but poor in phosphorus. They grow rice, wheat, sugarcane, pulses and oilseeds, and jute does especially well on the fresh alluvium of the lower Ganga-Brahmaputra delta. In the drier western plains, poor drainage and heavy canal irrigation can draw salts up to the surface and spoil the land, which links this soil to the saline soils described in Part 2.

काळी मृदा (रेगूर) दख्खनच्या पठाराचा बहुतेक भाग व्यापते. सुमारे 6.6 कोटी वर्षांपूर्वी पश्चिम व मध्य भारतावर पसरलेल्या लाव्हा थरांच्या, म्हणजे दख्खन ट्रॅपच्या बेसाल्टपासून ती मुख्यतः बनली; आईचे गुण मुलात यावेत तसे खडकाचे गुण मातीत आले. केंद्र महाराष्ट्र; गुजरात, पश्चिम मध्य प्रदेश, कर्नाटक, तेलंगणा, आंध्र प्रदेश, तमिळनाडूपर्यंत. गोदावरी, कृष्णा यांसारख्या नद्यांच्या खोऱ्यांत खोल, उंच पठारावर पातळ. कापूस छान येतो म्हणून 'काळी कापसाची माती'; विदर्भ, मराठवाड्याची कापूसशेती तिच्यावरच. स्थानिक मृदेचे उत्तम उदाहरण. (→ English: black soil (regur); Deccan Traps; basalt; black cotton soil · हिन्दी: काली मृदा (रेगुर); दक्कन ट्रैप; बेसाल्ट; काली कपास मृदा)

In exam Englishblack soil (regur), known in India as regur, covers most of the Deccan plateau. It developed largely from the basalt of the Deccan Traps, the huge sheets of lava that poured over western and central India about 66 million years ago, and the parent rock explains much of its character. Its heartland is Maharashtra, and it extends over large parts of Gujarat and western Madhya Pradesh and into Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. It tends to be deepest on the lowlands and in the valleys of rivers such as the Godavari, Krishna, Narmada and Tapi, and thinner on the higher plateau surfaces. Because cotton thrives in it, it is widely called black cotton soil, and the cotton fields of Vidarbha, Marathwada and Gujarat lie largely on it. It is the classic example of a residual soil that reflects the rock beneath.

काळ्या मृदेत चिकणमाती भरपूर. पावसात भिजली की फुगते आणि चिकट होते, म्हणून सरीनंतर लगेच नांगरणे कठीण; सुकली की आकुंचन पावून खोल भेगा पडतात. भेगांत हवा शिरते, वरची माती आत पडते; माती स्वतःच काहीशी उलटते, म्हणून 'स्वतः नांगरणारी माती'. स्पंजसारखा ओलावा धरते म्हणून कापूस कमी पाण्यात कोरडा काळ तग धरतो. चुना, लोह, मॅग्नेशिया, अॅल्युमिना, पोटॅश भरपूर; फॉस्फरस, नायट्रोजन, सेंद्रिय पदार्थ कमी. कापसासोबत ज्वारी, गहू, डाळी, तेलबिया, पाणी असल्यास ऊस. याच चिकटपणामुळे रस्ते व इमारतींसाठी ती कठीण पाया. (→ English: self-ploughing; moisture retention; lime; phosphorus · हिन्दी: स्वतः जुताई; नमी धारण; चूना; फ़ॉस्फ़ोरस)

In exam EnglishBlack soil is rich in clay, and that clay behaves unusually. Soaked by rain, the soil swells and turns sticky, so it is hard to plough just after a shower; as it dries it shrinks and splits into deep, wide cracks. Air enters the cracks and loose surface material falls into them, so the soil partly turns itself over, which is why it is called self-ploughing. Its great power to hold moisture lets crops such as cotton come through dry spells with little irrigation, an advantage in the rain-shadow interior of the Deccan. Chemically, black soil is generally rich in lime, iron, magnesia, alumina and potash, but poor in phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter. Besides cotton, it grows jowar, wheat, pulses and oilseeds, and sugarcane where irrigation is available. The same stickiness makes it a difficult base for roads and buildings.

तांबडी व पिवळी मृदा ग्रॅनाइट, नाइस यांसारख्या जुन्या स्फटिकी खडकांवर, कमी ते मध्यम पावसाच्या भागात बनते. पूर्व व दक्षिण दख्खन: तमिळनाडू, कर्नाटक, आंध्र प्रदेश, तेलंगणा, ओडिशा, छत्तीसगड; पश्चिम घाटाच्या पायथ्याशी आणि मध्य गंगा मैदानाच्या दक्षिणेला काही ठिकाणी. तांबडा रंग खडकात पसरलेल्या लोहामुळे; ते लोह ऑक्साइड पाणी शोषून घेते तेव्हा पिवळा. जुन्या लोखंडी फाटकावरचा गंज आठवा. हलकी, सच्छिद्र माती; नायट्रोजन, फॉस्फरस, ह्युमस कमी. सखल भागातील बारीक तांबडी माती चांगली पिकते; उंच कोरड्या भागातील खडेमिश्रित मातीला खत व पाणी लागते. नाचणी, भुईमूग, डाळी, तंबाखू. (→ English: red and yellow soil; crystalline rocks; iron oxide; hydrated · हिन्दी: लाल और पीली मृदा; क्रिस्टलीय चट्टानें; लौह ऑक्साइड; जलयोजित)

In exam Englishred and yellow soil forms on old crystalline rocks such as granite and gneiss, mostly where rainfall is low to moderate. Its main belt lies across the eastern and southern Deccan, in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Odisha and Chhattisgarh, and it also appears along the foot of the Western Ghats and in patches to the south of the middle Ganga plain. The red colour comes from iron spread widely through the parent rock, and where that iron oxide has taken up water, the shade turns yellow, so both colours are often seen close together. In general the soil is light and porous and is short of nitrogen, phosphorus and humus. Fine-textured red soils on lower ground can be quite productive, whereas coarse, gravelly ones on dry uplands are poor and need manure and water. Millets such as ragi, groundnut, pulses and tobacco are typical crops.

जांभी मृदा (लॅटेराइट) हे नाव लॅटिन शब्द 'लेटर' (वीट) यावरून. कडक उष्णता, जोरदार पाऊस आणि मधे कोरडा ऋतू अशा ठिकाणी ती बनते. पाऊस चुना व सिलिका विरघळवून खाली वाहून नेतो (याला निक्षालन म्हणतात); मागे उरतात लोह व अॅल्युमिनियमची ऑक्साइडे, तीच तांबूस रंगाची कारणे. चहापावडरमधून पाणी रंग-चव घेऊन जाते आणि चोथा उरतो तसे. उष्णतेत जीवाणू गळलेली पाने लवकर कुजवतात, म्हणून दाट जंगलाखालीही ह्युमस कमी. आम्लधर्मी; सेंद्रिय पदार्थ, नायट्रोजन, फॉस्फेट, कॅल्शियम कमी. केरळ, कर्नाटक, तमिळनाडू, मध्य प्रदेश, ओडिशा-आसामच्या टेकड्या. कापलेले चिरे हवेत कडक होतात, म्हणून कोकणातली जांभ्या दगडाची घरे. खतासह डोंगर उतारावर चहा, कॉफी; किनाऱ्याजवळ काजू. (→ English: laterite soil; leaching; iron and aluminium oxides · हिन्दी: लैटेराइट मृदा; निक्षालन; लोहे और एल्युमिनियम के ऑक्साइड)

In exam EnglishThe name laterite soil comes from the Latin word later, meaning brick. This soil forms where high temperatures and heavy rain alternate with a dry season. The rain dissolves lime and silica and carries them down out of the upper layers, a process called leaching, leaving behind oxides of iron and aluminium that give the soil its reddish tint. Heat also helps bacteria break down fallen leaves quickly, so little humus collects even under thick forest. The result is an acidic soil short of organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium. It occurs mainly in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh and in the hilly parts of Odisha and Assam, often on high, rain-washed ground. Blocks cut from it harden in the air, so it has long served as building material. With manure and fertiliser it supports tea and coffee on hill slopes and cashew nearer the coast.
The four most widespread soil groups of India compared
SoilHow it formsRich inPoor inTypical crops
AlluvialSilt laid down by rivers (transported)PotashPhosphorusRice, wheat, sugarcane, jute
Black (regur)Weathering of Deccan Trap basalt (residual)Lime, iron, magnesia, alumina, potashPhosphorus, nitrogen, organic matterCotton, jowar, wheat, oilseeds
Red and yellowWeathering of granite and gneiss under low to moderate rainIron (gives the colour)Nitrogen, phosphorus, humusRagi, groundnut, pulses, tobacco
LateriteLeaching under high heat and heavy rainIron and aluminium oxidesOrganic matter, nitrogen, phosphate, calciumTea, coffee, cashew (with manure)

चारही एकत्र पाहिले की खडक आणि हवामान काम वाटून घेतात. गाळाची मृदा स्थानिक खडकापेक्षा नद्यांची देणगी, म्हणून मैदाने व त्रिभुज प्रदेशांत. काळी मृदा खालच्या दख्खन बेसाल्टचे प्रतिबिंब. तांबडी व पिवळी मृदा मध्यम पावसात जुन्या ग्रॅनाइट-नाइसचे प्रतिबिंब. जांभी मृदा खडकापेक्षा हवामानाचे प्रतिबिंब: पुरेशी उष्णता व पाऊस असला तर बेसाल्टचाही जांभा होतो; म्हणून पश्चिम घाटातील काही उंच, ओल्या डोंगरमाथ्यांवर जांभा तर खालच्या कोरड्या पठारावर काळी मृदा. तेच तांदूळ, वेगवेगळे आचारी, वेगवेगळे पदार्थ! प्रत्येक प्रकारासाठी: उगम, रंग, काय भरपूर-काय कमी, कोणते पीक. (→ English: alluvial soil; black soil (regur); red and yellow soil; laterite soil · हिन्दी: जलोढ़ मृदा; काली मृदा (रेगुर); लाल और पीली मृदा; लैटेराइट मृदा)

In exam EnglishSeen together, the four groups show how parent rock and climate share the work. alluvial soil owes more to rivers than to local rock, so it follows the plains and deltas. black soil (regur) mirrors the Deccan basalt beneath it. red and yellow soil mirrors older granite and gneiss under moderate rain. laterite soil mirrors climate more than rock: given enough heat and rain, even basalt can weather into laterite, which is why laterite caps some high, wet hilltops of the Western Ghats while black soil lies on the drier plateau below. For each group, four facts carry most of the weight: how it forms, its colour, what it is rich and poor in, and the crops it suits. The remaining four groups, and the ways soil is lost and protected, follow in Part 2.

Exam traps

Recap

Practice questions

Q1. Which soil of India swells when wet, develops deep cracks when dry and is therefore described as 'self-ploughing'?

  1. Alluvial soil
  2. Black soil
  3. Laterite soil
  4. Red soil
Show answer

Answer: B. Black soil

Black soil is clay-rich: it swells when wet and cracks deeply when dry, so surface material falls into the cracks and the soil partly turns itself over. Alluvial soil is deposited silt and does not crack this way; laterite is a leached, iron-rich soil; red soil is light and porous.

Q2. Consider the following statements about laterite soil:
1. It develops under high temperature and heavy rainfall, when lime and silica are leached out.
2. It is rich in humus because it usually forms under dense forest.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct: laterite results from intense leaching under heat and heavy rain. Statement 2 is wrong: heat lets bacteria decompose leaf litter quickly, so laterite is poor in humus even under forest. So '2 only', 'both' and 'neither' are wrong.

Q3. The alluvial soils of the Northern Plains of India are generally:

  1. rich in potash and poor in phosphorus
  2. rich in phosphorus and poor in potash
  3. rich in iron and aluminium oxides and strongly acidic
  4. formed in place from the basalt beneath them
Show answer

Answer: A. rich in potash and poor in phosphorus

Alluvial soils are usually well supplied with potash but short of phosphorus. The reverse pairing is wrong; iron and aluminium oxides with strong acidity describe laterite; soil formed in place from basalt is black soil, while alluvium is transported by rivers.

Q4. Match List I (soil) with List II (main way it forms):
List I: A. Alluvial B. Black C. Red D. Laterite
List II: 1. Weathering of granite and gneiss 2. Deposition of silt by rivers 3. Intense leaching under heat and heavy rain 4. Weathering of Deccan Trap basalt
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

  1. A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
  2. A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
  3. A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
  4. A-4, B-2, C-3, D-1
Show answer

Answer: A. A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3

Alluvial soil is river-laid silt (A-2), black soil comes from Deccan basalt (B-4), red soil from granite and gneiss (C-1) and laterite from intense leaching (D-3). The second code swaps the parent rocks of black and red soil; the third makes alluvium a product of leaching; the fourth mixes up all four.

Q5. Consider the following statements about the soil profile:
1. The A horizon holds most of the humus.
2. The C horizon consists of partly weathered parent rock.
3. The B horizon is the solid bedrock.
Which of the statements given above are correct?

  1. 1 and 2 only
  2. 2 and 3 only
  3. 1 and 3 only
  4. 1, 2 and 3
Show answer

Answer: A. 1 and 2 only

Statements 1 and 2 are correct. Statement 3 is wrong: the B horizon is the subsoil, where clay and minerals washed down from above collect; solid bedrock lies below the C horizon. Every option that includes 3 is therefore wrong.

Q6. The red colour of the red soils of peninsular India is mainly due to:

  1. a high content of humus
  2. iron spread widely through the crystalline parent rocks
  3. a high content of lime and magnesia
  4. salts drawn up by heavy irrigation
Show answer

Answer: B. iron spread widely through the crystalline parent rocks

The red colour comes from iron diffused through granite and gneiss; where the iron oxide is hydrated the soil looks yellow. Humus darkens soil and red soils are in fact poor in it; lime and magnesia are features of black soil; salts drawn up by irrigation produce saline soils, not red ones.

Q7. Consider the following statements:
1. Khadar is the older alluvium found on higher ground above flood level.
2. Bhangar often contains nodules of lime called kankar.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. 1 only
  2. 2 only
  3. Both 1 and 2
  4. Neither 1 nor 2
Show answer

Answer: B. 2 only

Statement 1 is wrong: it describes Bhangar; Khadar is the newer, fertile alluvium of the flood plains. Statement 2 is correct: the older Bhangar alluvium often contains kankar. So '1 only', 'both' and 'neither' are wrong.

Q8. In which of the following regions does black soil predominate?

  1. The Bengal delta
  2. Western Rajasthan
  3. Vidarbha and Marathwada in Maharashtra
  4. The Brahmaputra valley of Assam
Show answer

Answer: C. Vidarbha and Marathwada in Maharashtra

Maharashtra is the heartland of black soil, formed on Deccan basalt, and the cotton fields of Vidarbha and Marathwada lie largely on it. The Bengal delta and the Brahmaputra valley are alluvial; western Rajasthan has arid soils, taught in Part 2.

All partsNext: Part 2 →

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