English · हिन्दी · తెలుగు · தமிழ் · മലയാളം · मराठी · ಕನ್ನಡ

The World Trade Organization

ಕನ್ನಡದಲ್ಲಿ ವಿವರಣೆ

International economic organisations · Part 3 / 3 · Fact-checked on 26 October 2026 · how we check

Written with AI from the sources listed at the bottom of this page, then fact-checked by a separate AI.

How GATT 1947 grew into the WTO through the Uruguay Round, the WTO's bodies and consensus rule, most-favoured-nation and national treatment with their exceptions, bound tariffs and trade remedies, dispute settlement and the Appellate Body crisis, the Agreement on Agriculture and its boxes, public stockholding and the Bali peace clause, TRIPS and India's patent law (Section 3(d), Novartis), GATS modes and TRIMS, and the ministerial conferences from Doha to Abu Dhabi with India's positions.

Each idea is explained first in Kannada (ಕನ್ನಡ), ending with the English and Hindi exam terms, followed by the same point in exam English. UPSC Prelims is in English or Hindi, so understand it in Kannada and revise it in English.

ಐಎಂಎಫ್ ಮತ್ತು ವಿಶ್ವ ಬ್ಯಾಂಕ್ ಹಣದ ವಿಷಯ ನೋಡುತ್ತವೆ; ಈಗ ವ್ಯಾಪಾರ ನಿಯಮಗಳ ಸರದಿ. ಒಂದು ದೊಡ್ಡ ವಾರದ ಸಂತೆಯನ್ನು ಕಲ್ಪಿಸಿಕೊಳ್ಳಿ — ಯಾರು ಎಷ್ಟು ಸುಂಕ ಕೊಡಬೇಕು, ಜಗಳ ಬಂದರೆ ಯಾರು ಬಗೆಹರಿಸಬೇಕು ಎಂಬ ನಿಯಮಗಳಿಲ್ಲದಿದ್ದರೆ ಗೊಂದಲವೇ. ಜಗತ್ತಿನ ಸಂತೆಗೆ ಆ ನಿಯಮಗಳನ್ನು ಬರೆದು ಜಾರಿಗೊಳಿಸುವುದು ವಿಶ್ವ ವ್ಯಾಪಾರ ಸಂಸ್ಥೆ. ಸರ್ಕಾರ ರೈತರಿಂದ ಭತ್ತ ಖರೀದಿಸುವುದು, ಔಷಧಿಗಳ ಪೇಟೆಂಟ್, ವಿದೇಶದಲ್ಲಿ ನಮ್ಮ ಎಂಜಿನಿಯರ್‌ಗಳ ಕೆಲಸ — ಎಲ್ಲವೂ ಇದರ ನಿಯಮಗಳಿಗೆ ಸಂಬಂಧಿಸಿದೆ. (→ English: World Trade Organization · हिन्दी: विश्व व्यापार संगठन)

In exam EnglishParts 1 and 2 were about money: the IMF steadies payments and the development banks fund long-term projects. The third pillar of the post-war order is trade. The planners of 1944 also wanted an International Trade Organization, but it never came into being, and for almost five decades world trade ran on a stop-gap treaty, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Since 1995 the rules have been run by the World Trade Organization. For India they reach into how the government buys wheat and rice from farmers, how medicines are patented and how Indian engineers work abroad. This part covers the WTO's origin, principles and machinery, its main agreements and India's stand inside it.

1947ರಲ್ಲಿ ಭಾರತ ಸೇರಿದಂತೆ 23 ದೇಶಗಳು ಗ್ಯಾಟ್ ಎಂಬ ಒಪ್ಪಂದ ಮಾಡಿಕೊಂಡವು. ನಿಜವಾದ ಸಂಸ್ಥೆ ಬರುವವರೆಗೆ ಹಾಕಿದ ತಾತ್ಕಾಲಿಕ ಚಪ್ಪರದಂತೆ ಇದು — ಆದರೆ ಕಟ್ಟಡ ಕಟ್ಟಲೇ ಇಲ್ಲ, ಚಪ್ಪರವೇ ಐವತ್ತು ವರ್ಷ ನಿಂತಿತು. ಎಂಟು ಸುತ್ತಿನ ಮಾತುಕತೆಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಆಮದು ಸುಂಕ ಇಳಿಯಿತು. ಕೊನೆಯ ಉರುಗ್ವೆ ಸುತ್ತು 1994ರಲ್ಲಿ ಮರಾಕೇಶ್ ಒಪ್ಪಂದದೊಂದಿಗೆ ಮುಗಿದು, ಕೃಷಿ, ಸೇವೆಗಳು, ಬೌದ್ಧಿಕ ಆಸ್ತಿಯನ್ನೂ ನಿಯಮಗಳಿಗೆ ತಂದು ವಿಶ್ವ ವ್ಯಾಪಾರ ಸಂಸ್ಥೆಯನ್ನು ಹುಟ್ಟುಹಾಕಿತು. (→ English: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade · Uruguay Round · हिन्दी: प्रशुल्क और व्यापार पर सामान्य समझौता · उरुग्वे दौर)

In exam EnglishThe General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was signed at Geneva in October 1947 by 23 countries, India among them, and applied from 1 January 1948. It was meant to bridge the gap until the trade organisation proposed in the Havana Charter (1948) was set up. When the United States Congress did not approve that charter, GATT simply carried on without legal standing as an organisation; its members were called contracting parties. It lowered tariffs through eight negotiating rounds. Later rounds, such as the Tokyo Round (1973–79), also tackled non-tariff barriers. The eighth, the Uruguay Round, opened at Punta del Este in 1986 and ended with the Marrakesh Agreement of April 1994, which set up the WTO and, for the first time, put farm goods, textiles, services and intellectual property under common rules.

ಒಂದು ಗ್ರಾಮ ಪಂಚಾಯಿತಿಯನ್ನು ಕಲ್ಪಿಸಿಕೊಳ್ಳಿ: ಆಗಾಗ ಗ್ರಾಮಸಭೆ (ಸಚಿವರ ಸಮ್ಮೇಳನ — ಎರಡು ವರ್ಷಕ್ಕೊಮ್ಮೆಯಾದರೂ ಕಡ್ಡಾಯ), ನಡುವೆ ದಿನನಿತ್ಯದ ಕೆಲಸ ನೋಡುವ ಸಮಿತಿ (ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯ ಮಂಡಳಿ). ಅದೇ ಸಮಿತಿ ವ್ಯಾಜ್ಯ ಬಗೆಹರಿಸುವ ಪಂಚಾಯಿತಿಯಾಗಿ, ಪ್ರತಿ ಮನೆಯ ಲೆಕ್ಕ ಪರಿಶೀಲಿಸುವ ಸಭೆಯಾಗಿಯೂ ಕೂರುತ್ತದೆ. ಕಾರ್ಯದರ್ಶಿ (ಮಹಾನಿರ್ದೇಶಕ) ನೆರವಾಗುತ್ತಾರೆ, ತೀರ್ಮಾನಿಸುವುದಿಲ್ಲ. ಎಲ್ಲರೂ ಒಪ್ಪಿದರೆ ಮಾತ್ರ ತೀರ್ಮಾನ — ಹಾಗಾಗಿ ವಿಶ್ವ ವ್ಯಾಪಾರ ಸಂಸ್ಥೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಸಣ್ಣ ದೇಶವೂ ತಡೆಯಬಹುದು. (→ English: World Trade Organization · Ministerial Conference · General Council · हिन्दी: विश्व व्यापार संगठन · मंत्रिस्तरीय सम्मेलन · सामान्य परिषद)

In exam EnglishThe World Trade Organization began work on 1 January 1995 with its seat in Geneva, and India has been a member from that day. The top body is the Ministerial Conference of trade ministers, which must meet at least once every two years. Between conferences the General Council of members' envoys runs the WTO, and the same council also sits as the Dispute Settlement Body and as the Trade Policy Review Body. The Secretariat, headed by a Director-General, serves members but does not decide; since March 2021 the post has been held by Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala of Nigeria, the first woman and the first African in it. Decisions are normally taken by consensus, so any of the 166 members (2024) can in practice hold up a deal.

ಅತ್ಯಂತ ಆದ್ಯತೆಯ ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರ ಸ್ಥಾನಮಾನ ಎಂಬ ಹೆಸರು ನೋಡಿ 'ಒಂದು ದೇಶವನ್ನು ವಿಶೇಷವಾಗಿ ನೋಡುವುದು' ಎಂದುಕೊಳ್ಳಬೇಡಿ — ಅರ್ಥ ಅದಕ್ಕೆ ತದ್ವಿರುದ್ಧ. ಅಂಗಡಿಯವನು ಒಬ್ಬ ಗ್ರಾಹಕನಿಗೆ ಕೊಟ್ಟ ರಿಯಾಯಿತಿಯನ್ನು ಎಲ್ಲರಿಗೂ ಕೊಡಬೇಕು ಎಂಬಂತೆ. ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಸಮಾನ ವ್ಯವಹಾರ ಎಂದರೆ: ವಿದೇಶಿ ಸೈಕಲ್ ಗಡಿ ಸುಂಕ ಕಟ್ಟಿ ಒಳಗೆ ಬಂದ ಮೇಲೆ, ನಮ್ಮ ಸೈಕಲ್‌ಗಿಂತ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ತೆರಿಗೆ ಹಾಕುವಂತಿಲ್ಲ. ಆಸಿಯಾನ್‌ನಂತಹ ಮುಕ್ತ ವ್ಯಾಪಾರ ಒಪ್ಪಂದಗಳು, ಬಡ ದೇಶಗಳಿಗೆ ವಿಶೇಷ ರಿಯಾಯಿತಿಗಳು — ಇವು ಅನುಮತಿಸಿದ ವಿನಾಯಿತಿಗಳು. (→ English: most-favoured-nation treatment · national treatment · हिन्दी: सर्वाधिक अनुग्रहप्राप्त राष्ट्र व्यवहार · राष्ट्रीय व्यवहार)

In exam EnglishTwo rules sit at the core of the system. Under most-favoured-nation treatment (GATT Article I), any advantage a member grants to goods from one country must be extended at once and unconditionally to like goods from all members. The name suggests a favourite, but the rule means the opposite: no picking favourites among trading partners. Under national treatment (Article III), imported goods that have cleared customs must be treated no less favourably than local goods in internal taxes and regulations. A higher state tax on imported bicycles than on Indian-made ones would breach it, even if the customs duty was lawful. Article XXIV allows free trade areas and customs unions, which is how India can cut duties only for partners such as ASEAN or the UAE. The Enabling Clause (1979) allows preferences for developing countries, and many agreements give them special and differential treatment.

ಬೌಂಡ್ ಸುಂಕ ಎಂದರೆ ಆಟೋದಲ್ಲಿ 'ಮೀಟರ್‌ಗಿಂತ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಕೇಳುವುದಿಲ್ಲ' ಎಂದು ಬರೆದಿಟ್ಟಂತೆ — ಕಡಿಮೆ ತೆಗೆದುಕೊಳ್ಳಬಹುದು, ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಅಲ್ಲ. ಈಗ ಕಲ್ಪಿಸಿಕೊಳ್ಳಿ: ಒಂದು ವಿದೇಶಿ ಕಂಪನಿ ತನ್ನ ದೇಶದಲ್ಲಿ ನೂರು ರೂಪಾಯಿಗೆ ಮಾರುವ ರಾಸಾಯನಿಕವನ್ನು ಇಲ್ಲಿ ಅರವತ್ತಕ್ಕೆ ಮಾರಿ ನಮ್ಮ ಕಾರ್ಖಾನೆಗಳನ್ನು ಮುಚ್ಚಿಸುತ್ತಿದೆ. ಆಗ ಆ ವ್ಯತ್ಯಾಸ ತುಂಬುವ ಡಂಪಿಂಗ್ ವಿರೋಧಿ ಸುಂಕ ಹಾಕಬಹುದು. ವಿದೇಶಿ ಸರ್ಕಾರದ ಸಹಾಯಧನಕ್ಕೆ ಪ್ರತಿಯಾಗಿ ಒಂದು ಸುಂಕ, ಹಠಾತ್ ಆಮದು ಏರಿಕೆಗೆ ತಾತ್ಕಾಲಿಕ ರಕ್ಷಣೆ — ಇವು ಉಳಿದ ಎರಡು. (→ English: anti-dumping duty · countervailing duty · safeguard · हिन्दी: पाटनरोधी शुल्क · प्रतिकारी शुल्क · रक्षोपाय)

In exam EnglishMembers also bind their tariffs: each lists a ceiling rate for every product in its schedule, and may charge less but not more without offering compensation. India's bound rates on many farm goods are far above its applied rates, leaving room to raise duties. Three trade remedies are allowed. An anti-dumping duty may be imposed when a foreign firm sells abroad below its normal price at home and this injures the importing country's industry; a countervailing duty offsets a subsidy paid by a foreign government; and a safeguard measure temporarily limits a sudden surge of imports, even when the trade itself is fair. In India the Directorate General of Trade Remedies in the Commerce Ministry investigates and recommends, and the Finance Ministry levies the duty.

ಕ್ರಿಕೆಟ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ ಅಂಪೈರ್ ತೀರ್ಮಾನದ ವಿರುದ್ಧ ಮೂರನೇ ಅಂಪೈರ್‌ಗೆ ಮೇಲ್ಮನವಿ ಸಲ್ಲಿಸುತ್ತೇವಲ್ಲ. ಇಲ್ಲಿ ಸಮಿತಿ ಮೊದಲ ಅಂಪೈರ್, ಮೇಲ್ಮನವಿ ಮಂಡಳಿ ಮೂರನೇ ಅಂಪೈರ್. ಈಗ ಕಲ್ಪಿಸಿಕೊಳ್ಳಿ — ಮೂರನೇ ಅಂಪೈರ್ ಕುರ್ಚಿ ಖಾಲಿ, ಹೊಸಬರನ್ನು ನೇಮಿಸಲು ಬಿಡುತ್ತಿಲ್ಲ. ಸೋತ ತಂಡ 'ಮೇಲ್ಮನವಿ' ಎಂದು ಹೇಳಿ ತೀರ್ಮಾನವನ್ನು ಗಾಳಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ತೂಗಿಬಿಡಬಹುದು. 2019ರ ಡಿಸೆಂಬರ್‌ನಿಂದ ಅದೇ ನಡೆಯುತ್ತಿದೆ. ಕೆಲವು ದೇಶಗಳು ತಾತ್ಕಾಲಿಕ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆ ಮಾಡಿಕೊಂಡಿವೆ, ಭಾರತ ಅದರಲ್ಲಿ ಸೇರಿಲ್ಲ. (→ English: Dispute Settlement Body · Appellate Body · हिन्दी: विवाद निपटान निकाय · अपीलीय निकाय)

In exam EnglishDisputes follow the Dispute Settlement Understanding. The two sides first consult; if that fails within 60 days, a panel of usually three experts hears the case, and either side may appeal on points of law to a standing Appellate Body of seven members. Rulings are adopted unless all members agree to reject them, so a losing country cannot block its own defeat, the key gain over GATT. That machinery has been jammed since December 2019: the United States had blocked new appointments, and the Appellate Body fell below the three members needed to hear an appeal. A losing party can now appeal 'into the void', leaving the ruling in limbo. In 2020 the European Union and others set up the Multi-Party Interim Appeal Arbitration Arrangement as a stand-in; India has not joined it. India itself appealed a 2021 panel ruling against its sugar subsidies.

ಬಣ್ಣದ ಪೆಟ್ಟಿಗೆಗಳನ್ನು ಟ್ರಾಫಿಕ್ ದೀಪಗಳಂತೆ ತಿಳಿಯಿರಿ. ಅಂಬರ್ ಬಾಕ್ಸ್ (ಹಳದಿ ದೀಪ) ಎಂದರೆ 'ಎಚ್ಚರ' — ಬೆಳೆ ಬೆಲೆಗೆ, ಉತ್ಪಾದನೆಗೆ ನೇರವಾಗಿ ಕೊಡುವ ಬೆಂಬಲ; ಇದಕ್ಕೆ ಮಿತಿ ಇದೆ, ನಮ್ಮಂತಹ ಅಭಿವೃದ್ಧಿಶೀಲ ದೇಶಕ್ಕೆ ಉತ್ಪಾದನಾ ಮೌಲ್ಯದ 10 ಶೇಕಡಾ. ಗ್ರೀನ್ ಬಾಕ್ಸ್ (ಹಸಿರು ದೀಪ) ಎಂದರೆ 'ಹೋಗಿ' — ಸಂಶೋಧನೆ, ರೈತರಿಗೆ ಸಲಹೆ, ಬೆಳೆಗೆ ಸಂಬಂಧವಿಲ್ಲದ ಆದಾಯ ನೆರವು; ಮಿತಿ ಇಲ್ಲ. ಬಡ, ಸಣ್ಣ ರೈತರಿಗೆ ಗೊಬ್ಬರದಂತಹ ಸಹಾಯಧನಕ್ಕೆ ವಿಧಿ 6.2 ವಿನಾಯಿತಿ ಕೊಡುತ್ತದೆ. (→ English: amber box · green box · de minimis · हिन्दी: एम्बर बॉक्स · ग्रीन बॉक्स · न्यूनतम स्तर)

In exam EnglishThe Agreement on Agriculture disciplined farm trade on three fronts: market access, export subsidies, and domestic support. Domestic support is sorted into boxes by how much it distorts trade. The amber box holds the most distorting support, such as price support and subsidies tied to output; it is measured as the Aggregate Measurement of Support and capped. Every member may still give amber support up to a de minimis level: 5 per cent of the value of production for developed members and 10 per cent for developing ones. The blue box covers payments under programmes that limit production, and the green box covers support that distorts trade little or not at all, such as research, extension and income support not linked to output or prices; neither box is capped. Article 6.2, often called the development box, exempts investment subsidies and input subsidies for low-income or resource-poor farmers in developing countries.

Domestic farm support under the Agreement on Agriculture
Box	What it holds	Example	Limit
Amber	Trade-distorting support tied to output or prices	Market price support, output-linked subsidies	Capped: de minimis 5% (developed) or 10% (developing) of production value, or a bound AMS
Blue	Payments under production-limiting programmes	Payments on fixed area or herd size	No limit
Green	Support with no or minimal distortion	Research, extension, decoupled income support	No limit
Development (Art 6.2)	Investment and input subsidies for low-income or resource-poor farmers in developing countries	Input subsidies for small farmers	Exempt

ಉದಾಹರಣೆ: ಒಂದು ವಸ್ತುವಿನ ಬೆಲೆಯನ್ನು ಇಂದಿನ ದರದೊಂದಿಗೆ ಅಲ್ಲ, ಮೂವತ್ತು ವರ್ಷ ಹಿಂದಿನ ದರದೊಂದಿಗೆ ಹೋಲಿಸಿ 'ನೀನು ಎಷ್ಟು ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಕೊಟ್ಟೆ' ಎಂದು ಲೆಕ್ಕ ಹಾಕಿದರೆ, ವ್ಯತ್ಯಾಸ ನಿಜಕ್ಕಿಂತ ದೊಡ್ಡದಾಗಿ ಕಾಣುತ್ತದಲ್ಲ. ಬೆಂಬಲ ಬೆಲೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ನಮ್ಮ ಸರ್ಕಾರ ಅಕ್ಕಿ ಕೊಳ್ಳುವುದನ್ನು 1986–88ರ ಬೆಲೆಗಳೊಂದಿಗೆ ಹೋಲಿಸುವುದರಿಂದ ಅದೇ ಆಗುತ್ತಿದೆ — 10 ಶೇಕಡಾ ಗೆರೆ ದಾಟಿದಂತೆ ಕಾಣುತ್ತದೆ. ಅದಕ್ಕಾಗಿಯೇ 2013ರಲ್ಲಿ ಬಾಲಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಶಾಂತಿ ಷರತ್ತು ಬಂತು: ಬಡವರ ಆಹಾರ ದಾಸ್ತಾನಿನ ವಿಷಯದಲ್ಲಿ ದಾವೆ ಹೂಡುವುದಿಲ್ಲ. 2020ರಲ್ಲಿ ಇದನ್ನು ಮೊದಲು ಬಳಸಿದ್ದು ಭಾರತ. (→ English: peace clause · public stockholding for food security · हिन्दी: शांति खंड · खाद्य सुरक्षा के लिए सार्वजनिक भंडारण)

In exam EnglishThis is where India's food policy runs into the rules. When the Food Corporation of India buys wheat and rice at minimum support prices for the public distribution system, the support counts in the amber box. It is worked out as the gap between the administered price and a fixed external reference price from 1986–88, multiplied by the quantity eligible for support. Because that reference price is decades old, its rice support can cross the 10 per cent ceiling even when the real benefit to farmers is modest. At the Bali Ministerial Conference (2013) India secured an interim peace clause: members would not bring disputes against developing countries' public stockholding of traditional staple food crops, subject to notification and transparency conditions. A General Council decision of November 2014 kept it in force until a permanent solution is adopted. In 2020 India became the first member to invoke it, after notifying that its rice support for 2018-19 had exceeded the limit.

ಪೇಟೆಂಟ್ ಎಂದರೆ ಆವಿಷ್ಕಾರಕನಿಗೆ 'ಇಪ್ಪತ್ತು ವರ್ಷ ಇದು ನಿನ್ನದು, ಬೇರೆ ಯಾರೂ ತಯಾರಿಸಬಾರದು' ಎಂದು ಕೊಡುವ ಹಕ್ಕು. 1970ರ ಕಾಯ್ದೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಔಷಧಿ ತಯಾರಿಸುವ ವಿಧಾನಕ್ಕೆ ಮಾತ್ರ ಪೇಟೆಂಟ್ ಕೊಡುತ್ತಿದ್ದೆವು — ಬೇರೆ ವಿಧಾನದಲ್ಲಿ ಅದೇ ಔಷಧಿಯನ್ನು ಅಗ್ಗವಾಗಿ ಮಾಡಬಹುದಿತ್ತು. ಟ್ರಿಪ್ಸ್‌ನಿಂದ 2005ರಲ್ಲಿ ಔಷಧಿಗೇ ಪೇಟೆಂಟ್ ಕೊಡಬೇಕಾಯಿತು. ಆದರೆ ಹಳೆಯ ಔಷಧಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಸ್ವಲ್ಪ ಬದಲಾವಣೆ ಮಾಡಿ ಹೊಸ ಪೇಟೆಂಟ್ ಕೇಳಿದರೆ, ಪರಿಣಾಮ ಹೆಚ್ಚದಿದ್ದರೆ ಕೊಡುವುದಿಲ್ಲ — ಸೆಕ್ಷನ್ 3(ಡಿ). ಸಾರ್ವಜನಿಕ ಆರೋಗ್ಯಕ್ಕಾಗಿ ಸರ್ಕಾರ ಕಡ್ಡಾಯ ಪರವಾನಗಿ ಕೊಟ್ಟು ಇತರರಿಂದ ತಯಾರಿಸಿಕೊಳ್ಳಬಹುದು. (→ English: compulsory licence · TRIPS · Section 3(d) · हिन्दी: अनिवार्य अनुज्ञप्ति · ट्रिप्स · धारा 3(घ))

In exam EnglishThe Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) sets minimum standards for patents, copyright, trademarks, geographical indications and other rights. Patents must be available for inventions in all fields of technology, for products as well as processes, and must last at least 20 years from the filing date. This forced a large change in India, whose Patents Act, 1970 allowed only process patents for medicines, so Indian firms could copy foreign drugs cheaply by another process. India brought in product patents through the Patents (Amendment) Act, 2005, but kept Section 3(d), which refuses patents for new forms of known substances unless they enhance the known efficacy. In Novartis v. Union of India (2013) the Supreme Court applied Section 3(d) to deny a patent on a new form of the cancer drug imatinib mesylate. TRIPS also allows a compulsory licence, under which a government lets others make a patented product without the owner's consent; the Doha Declaration on TRIPS and Public Health (2001) affirmed this right.

ಸೇವಾ ವ್ಯಾಪಾರ ನಾಲ್ಕು ಬಗೆ: ಬೆಂಗಳೂರಿನಲ್ಲಿ ಕುಳಿತು ಅಮೆರಿಕದ ಕಂಪನಿಗೆ ಸಾಫ್ಟ್‌ವೇರ್ ಬರೆಯುವುದು (ಮೋಡ್ 1), ವಿದೇಶಿ ರೋಗಿ ಚೆನ್ನೈಗೆ ಬಂದು ಚಿಕಿತ್ಸೆ ಪಡೆಯುವುದು (ಮೋಡ್ 2), ವಿದೇಶಿ ಬ್ಯಾಂಕ್ ಇಲ್ಲಿ ಶಾಖೆ ತೆರೆಯುವುದು (ಮೋಡ್ 3), ನಮ್ಮ ಎಂಜಿನಿಯರ್ ಕೆಲವು ತಿಂಗಳು ಯುರೋಪಿಗೆ ಹೋಗಿ ಕೆಲಸ ಮಾಡುವುದು (ಮೋಡ್ 4). ನಮಗೆ ಮುಖ್ಯವಾದದ್ದು ಮೋಡ್ 4. ಟ್ರಿಮ್ಸ್ ಎಂದರೆ 'ನಮ್ಮ ದೇಶದಲ್ಲಿ ಹೂಡಿಕೆ ಮಾಡಿದರೆ ನಮ್ಮ ಬಿಡಿಭಾಗಗಳನ್ನೇ ಬಳಸಬೇಕು' ಎಂದು ಷರತ್ತು ಹಾಕುವಂತಿಲ್ಲ — ಸೌರ ಪ್ರಕರಣದಲ್ಲಿ ನಾವು ಸೋತದ್ದು ಇದಕ್ಕೇ. ಇದು ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಸಮಾನ ವ್ಯವಹಾರ ನಿಯಮದಿಂದಲೇ ಬರುತ್ತದೆ. (→ English: GATS · Mode 4 · TRIMS · हिन्दी: गैट्स · मोड 4 · ट्रिम्स)

In exam EnglishThe General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) carried trade rules into services. It defines four modes of supply, set out in the table below. India presses hardest on Mode 4, the temporary movement of skilled people, while richer members tend to push Mode 3, the right to set up businesses abroad. The Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMS) bans conditions on investors that break national treatment or the ban on quantitative restrictions in goods, such as a rule that a firm must buy a fixed share of local inputs. India lost a case on exactly this point in 2016, when the WTO ruled against domestic content requirements in its National Solar Mission. The agreements on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) and Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) allow food safety, health and product standards, provided they rest on science or legitimate aims and are not disguised protection.

The four modes of supply under GATS
Mode	What moves	Example
1. Cross-border supply	Only the service	Software written in India for a foreign client over the internet
2. Consumption abroad	The consumer	A foreign patient treated in an Indian hospital
3. Commercial presence	The supplier sets up abroad	A foreign bank opening a branch in India
4. Presence of natural persons	The individual, temporarily	An Indian engineer working at a client's site in Europe

ದೋಹಾ ಸುತ್ತು ಎಂದರೆ ಇಪ್ಪತ್ತೈದು ವರ್ಷಗಳಿಂದ ಕಟ್ಟುತ್ತಲೇ ಇರುವ, ಎಂದಿಗೂ ಮುಗಿಯದ ಮನೆಯಂತೆ. ಪೂರ್ಣ ಒಪ್ಪಂದ ಬರದಿದ್ದರೂ, ನಡುನಡುವೆ ಕೋಣೆಗಳನ್ನು ಮಾತ್ರ ಕಟ್ಟಿದರು: ಬಾಲಿ (2013)ಯಲ್ಲಿ ಕಸ್ಟಮ್ಸ್ ಕೆಲಸ ಸುಲಭಗೊಳಿಸುವ ಒಪ್ಪಂದ, ನೈರೋಬಿ (2015)ಯಲ್ಲಿ ಕೃಷಿ ರಫ್ತು ಸಹಾಯಧನ ರದ್ದು, ಜಿನೀವಾ (2022)ದಲ್ಲಿ ಮೀನುಗಾರಿಕೆ ಸಹಾಯಧನಕ್ಕೆ ನಿಯಮಗಳು, ಕೋವಿಡ್ ಲಸಿಕೆಗೆ ಸಡಿಲಿಕೆ. ಅಬುಧಾಬಿ (2024)ಯಲ್ಲಿ ಏನೂ ತೀರ್ಮಾನವಾಗಲಿಲ್ಲ. ನಮ್ಮ ರೈತರು, ಆಹಾರ ದಾಸ್ತಾನು, ಬಡ ದೇಶಗಳಿಗೆ ವಿಶೇಷ ಸಡಿಲಿಕೆ — ಇವನ್ನೇ ಭಾರತ ಯಾವಾಗಲೂ ಒತ್ತಾಯಿಸುತ್ತದೆ. (→ English: Doha Development Agenda · Trade Facilitation Agreement · हिन्दी: दोहा विकास एजेंडा · व्यापार सुविधा समझौता)

In exam EnglishThe Doha Development Agenda, launched at Doha in November 2001, promised a round centred on developing countries but has never been finished; talks collapsed at Cancún in 2003 and in Geneva in 2008. Bali (2013) gave the Trade Facilitation Agreement on simpler customs procedures, in force from February 2017, along with the peace clause. Nairobi (2015) ended farm export subsidies. The twelfth conference, in Geneva (2022), agreed rules curbing harmful fisheries subsidies, which came into force in September 2025, and a decision easing TRIPS rules for making COVID-19 vaccines. The thirteenth, at Abu Dhabi in 2024, closed without agreement on agriculture or a second stage of fisheries rules. India's line has been steady: protect public stockholding and small farmers, keep special and differential treatment, restore the Appellate Body, resist a permanent ban on customs duties on electronic transmissions, and oppose bringing plurilateral deals, such as one on investment facilitation, into the WTO without consensus.

ಇಡೀ ಅಧ್ಯಾಯವನ್ನು ಒಂದು ಮನೆಗೆ ಹೋಲಿಸಿ: ಅಂತರರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ಹಣಕಾಸು ನಿಧಿ ತುರ್ತು ಖರ್ಚಿನ ಹುಂಡಿ, ವಿಶ್ವ ಬ್ಯಾಂಕ್ ಮನೆ ಕಟ್ಟಲು ದೀರ್ಘಾವಧಿ ಸಾಲ, ವಿಶ್ವ ವ್ಯಾಪಾರ ಸಂಸ್ಥೆ ನೆರೆಹೊರೆಯವರೊಂದಿಗೆ ಮಾರಾಟ-ಖರೀದಿಯ ನಿಯಮಗಳು. ಒಪ್ಪಂದ ಸರಳ: ಎಲ್ಲರೊಂದಿಗೂ ಒಂದೇ ರೀತಿ ನಡೆದುಕೊಳ್ಳುತ್ತೇನೆ, ಸುಂಕದ ಗೆರೆ ದಾಟುವುದಿಲ್ಲ, ತೀರ್ಪು ಒಪ್ಪುತ್ತೇನೆ — ಬದಲಿಗೆ ನನ್ನ ಸರಕಿಗೆ ನಿನ್ನ ಮಾರುಕಟ್ಟೆ ತೆರೆದಿಡು. ಭಾರತ ಈ ಒಪ್ಪಂದದಲ್ಲಿ ತನ್ನ ರೈತರು ಮತ್ತು ಔಷಧಿಗಳಿಗಾಗಿ ಸಡಿಲಿಕೆ ಕೇಳುತ್ತಾ ಬಂದಿದೆ. (→ English: World Trade Organization · International Monetary Fund · World Bank · हिन्दी: विश्व व्यापार संगठन · अंतरराष्ट्रीय मुद्रा कोष · विश्व बैंक)

In exam EnglishTaken together, the WTO rests on a simple bargain: members accept non-discrimination, bound tariffs and binding rulings, and in return gain secure access to one another's markets. The Uruguay Round stretched that bargain from goods to farming, services and ideas, which is why the rules now touch Indian grain procurement, drug patents and IT workers. India has acted as a defender of policy space: it uses trade remedies, shields its food stocks through the peace clause and argues that developing members need longer timelines and flexibility. The World Trade Organization completes the picture begun with the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank: one body for payments, one for development finance and one for trade rules. The chapter's quick recap brings all three parts onto one page.

Exam traps

Most-favoured-nation treatment means no discrimination among WTO members, not special favour to one country; free trade areas and customs unions (GATT Article XXIV) are the main exception.
National treatment applies to imported goods after they have entered the market; it does not forbid customs duties at the border.
The General Council also sits as the Dispute Settlement Body and the Trade Policy Review Body; the Ministerial Conference must meet at least once every two years.
The Appellate Body has been unable to hear appeals since December 2019; India has not joined the Multi-Party Interim Appeal Arbitration Arrangement (2020).
De minimis is 5 per cent of the value of production for developed and 10 per cent for developing members; blue and green box support is not capped. Procurement at MSP counts in the amber box.
The peace clause came from Bali (2013) and was extended in November 2014 until a permanent solution; it covers public stockholding of traditional staple food crops. India first invoked it in 2020, for rice.
TRIPS requires patents of at least 20 years from filing; India introduced product patents in 2005, and Section 3(d) was applied in Novartis (2013) to refuse a patent.
GATS Mode 4 is the presence of natural persons and Mode 3 is commercial presence. The Trade Facilitation Agreement was agreed at Bali (2013) and came into force in February 2017.

Recap

GATT signed October 1947 by 23 countries including India, applied from 1 January 1948; the ITO of the Havana Charter never came into being.
Uruguay Round 1986–1994; Marrakesh Agreement April 1994; WTO from 1 January 1995, Geneva; India a founding member.
Ministerial Conference at least every two years; General Council also sits as the Dispute Settlement Body and Trade Policy Review Body; decisions by consensus.
Core rules: MFN (Article I), national treatment (Article III); exceptions: FTAs and customs unions (Article XXIV), Enabling Clause (1979).
Bound tariffs; trade remedies: anti-dumping, countervailing duties, safeguards (DGTR investigates, Finance Ministry levies).
Appellate Body stalled since December 2019; MPIA (2020) not joined by India.
Agriculture: amber (capped, de minimis 5%/10%), blue and green (not capped), development box (Article 6.2).
Peace clause: Bali 2013, made open-ended in November 2014; India first to invoke it (2020, rice).
TRIPS: 20-year patents, compulsory licences, Doha Declaration 2001; India's 2005 amendment, Section 3(d), Novartis 2013. GATS: four modes; TRIMS: no local content conditions (India's solar case, 2016).

Practice questions

Q1. With reference to the World Trade Organization, which one of the following statements is correct?

It was created at the Bretton Woods conference of 1944.
It came into existence on 1 January 1995 as a result of the Uruguay Round.
India joined it only after the Doha Ministerial Conference of 2001.
Its Director-General can adopt binding decisions on behalf of members.

Show answer

Answer: B. It came into existence on 1 January 1995 as a result of the Uruguay Round.

The Marrakesh Agreement (April 1994) that closed the Uruguay Round set up the WTO from 1 January 1995. Bretton Woods created the IMF and the IBRD, not a trade body; India is a founding member; and the Secretariat under the Director-General serves members but does not take decisions.

Q2. Consider the following statements:
1. Under the most-favoured-nation principle, a WTO member must extend any tariff concession given to one member to all other members.
2. The national treatment principle prohibits a member from levying customs duties on imported goods.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1 only
2 only
Both 1 and 2
Neither 1 nor 2

Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct: MFN means no discrimination among members, subject to exceptions such as free trade areas. Statement 2 is wrong: national treatment applies only after goods have cleared customs and bars higher internal taxes or stricter rules, not border duties. So '2 only', 'Both' and 'Neither' are wrong.

Q3. Match the modes of supply under GATS with the examples:
A. Cross-border supply — 1. A foreign bank opens a branch in Mumbai
B. Consumption abroad — 2. An Indian engineer works for three months at a client's site in Germany
C. Commercial presence — 3. A patient from Kenya is treated in a Chennai hospital
D. Presence of natural persons — 4. A Bengaluru firm delivers software to a US client over the internet
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

A-4, B-3, C-1, D-2
A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1
A-4, B-1, C-3, D-2
A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4

Show answer

Answer: A. A-4, B-3, C-1, D-2

Only the service crosses the border in Mode 1 (software over the internet); the consumer travels in Mode 2 (the patient); the supplier sets up abroad in Mode 3 (the bank branch); and a person moves temporarily in Mode 4 (the engineer). The other codes mix up at least two of these pairs.

Q4. Consider the following statements about the WTO Agreement on Agriculture:
1. Green box support is subject to an overall ceiling of 10 per cent of the value of production for developing countries.
2. Purchases of rice at minimum support prices for public stockholding are counted as amber box support.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1 only
2 only
Both 1 and 2
Neither 1 nor 2

Show answer

Answer: B. 2 only

Statement 1 is wrong: the 10 per cent de minimis limit applies to amber box support; the green box is not capped. Statement 2 is correct: support through administered prices is measured against the 1986–88 reference price and counted in the amber box, which is why India needed the peace clause. So '1 only', 'Both' and 'Neither' are wrong.

Q5. The 'peace clause', often in the news in the context of the WTO, relates to

a ban on military goods in the WTO's tariff schedules
protection of developing countries' public stockholding of staple foods from WTO disputes
suspension of anti-dumping duties during a global recession
a pledge by members not to retaliate while the Appellate Body is vacant

Show answer

Answer: B. protection of developing countries' public stockholding of staple foods from WTO disputes

The peace clause, agreed at Bali in 2013 and extended in 2014 until a permanent solution, shields developing countries' public stockholding of traditional staple foods from disputes even if their support crosses the limit. It has nothing to do with military goods, anti-dumping duties or the Appellate Body vacancy.

Q6. Consider the following statements:
1. The WTO Appellate Body has been unable to hear appeals since December 2019 because new members could not be appointed.
2. India is a participant in the Multi-Party Interim Appeal Arbitration Arrangement.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1 only
2 only
Both 1 and 2
Neither 1 nor 2

Show answer

Answer: A. 1 only

Statement 1 is correct: appointments were blocked and the Appellate Body fell below the three members needed for an appeal. Statement 2 is wrong: the MPIA was set up in 2020 by the EU and others, and India has not joined it. So '2 only', 'Both' and 'Neither' are wrong.

Q7. In the context of India's patent law, Section 3(d) of the Patents Act, 1970 is known for

allowing only process patents for medicines
refusing patents for new forms of known substances that do not enhance their known efficacy
fixing the term of a patent at 14 years
barring compulsory licences for life-saving drugs

Show answer

Answer: B. refusing patents for new forms of known substances that do not enhance their known efficacy

Section 3(d), retained when product patents came in 2005, bars patents on new forms of known substances without enhanced efficacy; the Supreme Court applied it in Novartis (2013). Process-only patents for drugs were the pre-2005 regime, TRIPS requires at least 20 years, and the Act provides for compulsory licences rather than barring them.

Q8. Match the WTO Ministerial Conferences with their outcomes:
A. Doha (2001) — 1. Trade Facilitation Agreement and the peace clause
B. Bali (2013) — 2. Decision to abolish agricultural export subsidies
C. Nairobi (2015) — 3. Agreement on fisheries subsidies
D. Geneva (2022) — 4. Launch of the Development Agenda
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3
A-1, B-4, C-3, D-2
A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3
A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4

Show answer

Answer: A. A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3

Doha (2001) launched the Doha Development Agenda; Bali (2013) gave the Trade Facilitation Agreement and the peace clause; Nairobi (2015) decided to end farm export subsidies; and MC12 in Geneva (2022) agreed the fisheries subsidies agreement. Each other code misplaces at least two conferences.

← Part 2 All parts Quick recap →

Study this in the Upscore app to keep notes, save it for revision, track your practice scores and follow a plan to the exam date. It's free.

Study this in the app →

Sources

World Trade Organization: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (1947); Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the WTO (1994) and its annexes (GATT 1994, Agreement on Agriculture, GATS, TRIPS, TRIMS, SPS and TBT Agreements, Dispute Settlement Understanding) — https://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/legal_e.htm
World Trade Organization: ministerial declarations and decisions (Doha 2001, Bali 2013, Nairobi 2015, MC12 Geneva 2022, MC13 Abu Dhabi 2024), Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies, members and Director-General, dispute settlement records (DS456 solar cells; DS579–581 sugar) and the Appellate Body — https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/thewto_e.htm
Ministry of Commerce and Industry: Directorate General of Trade Remedies (anti-dumping, countervailing and safeguard investigations); PIB releases — https://www.dgtr.gov.in
World Trade Organization: domestic support in agriculture (the boxes), Annex 2 and Article 6 of the Agreement on Agriculture; India's domestic support notifications — https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/agric_e/agboxes_e.htm
Ministerial Decision on Public Stockholding for Food Security Purposes (Bali, December 2013) and General Council Decision of 27 November 2014; PIB releases of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry on the Bali, MC12 and MC13 outcomes — https://pib.gov.in
The Patents Act, 1970, as amended by the Patents (Amendment) Act, 2005 (section 3(d); Chapter XVI, compulsory licences) — https://www.indiacode.nic.in
Novartis AG v. Union of India, Supreme Court of India, judgment of 1 April 2013 — https://www.sci.gov.in